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THE 

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN 

MECHANIC: 



AN EVERY-DAY HAND-BOOK FOR THE WORKSHOP 
AND THE FACTORY. 

CONTAINING SEVERAL- THOUSAND RECEIPTS, 

RULES AND TABLES INDISPENSABLE 

TO THE MECHANIC, THE ARTISAN 

AND THE MANUFACTURER. 




tK 



B. FRANK VAN CLEVE. 



A New, Revised, Enlarged and Improved Edition 

EDITED BY 

EMORY EDWARDS, M. E., 

AUTHOR OF "A CATECHISM OF THE MARINE STEAM ENGINE," "MODERN AMERICAN 

MARINE ENGINES, BOILERS AND SCREW PROPELLERS," "THE PRACTICAL 

STEAM ENGINEER'S GUIDE," " MODERN AMERICAN LOCOMOTIVE 

ENGINES," "THE AMERICAN STEAM ENGINEER." 



ILLUSTRATED BY ELGHTY-FLVE ENGRAVLNGS. 



PHILADELPHIA : 

HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO., 

INDUSTRIAL publishers, booksellers and importe 
810 Walnut Street. 

LONDON : 

E. & F. N SPON, 125 STRAND. 

1890. 




Copyright by HENRY CAREY BAIKD & CO., 1890. 



PRINTED AT 

* I COLLINS PRINTING HOUSE, 



PHILADELPHIA, V. S. A. 



PREFACE 



The purpose of the English and American Mechanic is 
to serve as a handy reference book for the manufacturer, and to 
supply the intelligent workman with information required to 
conduct a process foreign, perhaps, to his habitual labor, but 
which at the time it may be necessary to practice. In order 
effectually to do this and to supply the reader with the most re- 
cent information on the various subjects treated of, it was de- 
termined to issue a new, enlarged and improved edition, which, 
it is hoped, will render the volume still more useful in the 
future than it has been in the past, great as has been its suc- 
cess and popularity. 

Self-help seems to be the guiding spirit of the present age, 
and there is a growing demand for handy practical books con- 
taining the necessary hints and instructions without enlarging 
on the theories and principles, or discussing the historical stages 
of the particular art or industry under consideration, and the 
aim of the present edition is to give reliable information in as 
concise a form as possible. 

No person who has not undertaken the labor of referring to 
the numerous volumes, journals and transactions of societies 
devoted to technical subjects now published in Europe and 
America, can form an adequate idea of the amount of research 
involved in the compilation of a work of this character, giving 
the results of the investigations and experiments of so many 
indefatigable laborers. The editor has endeavored to select 
only the best processes and receipts, which have been verified 
by competent authorities, and the aim throughout has been to 
render the English and American Mechanic a reliable 



PREFACE. 

hand-book for all interested in technological pursuits. It is, 
in fact, an Encyclopaedia of Useful Technical Knowledge, its pages 
presenting an array of information indispensable not only to 
the practical manufacturer and mechanic, but also to the ama- 
teur workman. 

In regard to the various receipts for mechanical purposes, it is 
well to remember that to the individual skill of the workman in 
performing many apparently simple operations is success due ; 
and that this skill is only obtained by long practice or natural 
ability. When, therefore, a receipt is for the first time tried, 
and it is not thoroughly successful, the experimenter should 
consider how far his own inexperience has contributed to the 
failure before he condemns the receipt. In using the receipts 
the observance of the following rules is recommended : 1. Be 
careful to use the exact proportions prescribed. 2. Always ex- 
periment first with small quantities. 

The editor acknowledges his indebtedness to numerous Eng- 
lish and American authors for valuable material, for tables, etc., 
and takes pleasure in expressing his obligations to the enter- 
prising publishers for the assistance rendered to him by a lib- 
eral supply of books and journals. 

A very copious table of contents, as well as an index, will ren- 
der reference to any subject or special receipt prompt and easy. 

EMORY EDWARDS. 

June 10, 1890. 



CONTENTS. 



Explanation of Diagrams: 
To find the circumference of any diameter ; To find the area of 

the sector of a circle 3 

Proportion of circles 4 

To describe an ellipse, or oval (simple method) .... 5 

To describe an ellipse 6 

To find the circumference of an ellipse ; To find the area of an 

ellipse 7 

To describe a right-angled elbow 8 

To describe a straight elbow (old method) ; To describe a curved 

elbow 9 

To describe a straight elbow (another method) . . . .11 
To describe bevel covers for vessels, or breasts for cans ; To de- 
scribe pitched covers for pails, etc 12 

To describe an oval boiler cover 13 

To describe a lip to a measure ; The circle and its sections . . 14 
To describe a flaring vessel pattern, a set of patterns for a pyramid 

cake, or an envelope for a cone 15 

To describe a cone or frustum 16 

To describe a heart ; Cycloid 17 

To strike the side of a flaring vessel 18 

To describe bevel covers for vessels, or breasts for cans . . 19 
To find the centre of a circle from a part of the circumference . 20 
Sector for obtaining angles; To construct the frustum of a cone . 21 
Rule for striking out a cone or frustum ; To find the contents of a 

pyramid or cone 22 

Hipped roofs, mill-hoppers, etc. ; To find the various angles and 
proper dimensions of materials whereby to construct any figure 
whose form is the frustum of a proper or inverted pyramid, as 
hipped roofs, mill-hoppers, etc. ; Contents in gallons of the 

frustum of a cone 23 

Rule to find the contents in gallons of any square vessel . . 24 
Contents in gallons of cylindrical vessels; To ascertain the 
weights of pipes of various metals, and any diameter re- 
quired 25 

Tin plates, size, length, breadth and weight 26 

Oil canisters (from 2\ to 125 gallons) with the quantity and 
quality of tin required for custom work; Weight of water; 
Decimal equivalents to the fractional parts of a gallon, or an 
inch 27 

(v) 



VI CONTENTS. 

A Table Containing the Diameters, Circumferences and 
Areas of Circles and the Content of each in Gal- 
lons at One Foot in Depth: 

Utility of the table ; Examples 28 

Diameters and circumferences of circles and the content in gal- 
lons at 1 foot in depth 29 

Capacity of cans one inch deep 32 

Definition of arithmetical signs used in the work . . . .33 
Practical Geometry: 

Problem I. To inscribe an equilateral triangle within a given 
circle . ... 34 

Problem II. Within a given circle to inscribe a square; Problem 
III. Within a given circle to inscribe a regular pentagon . 35 

Problem IV. Within a given circle to describe a regular hexagon ; 
Problem V. To cut off the corners of a given square, so as to 
form a regular octagon ; Problem VI. To divide a given line 
into any number of parts, which parts shall be in the same 
proportion to each other as the parts of some other given line, 
whether those parts are equal or unequal 36 

Problem VII. On a given line to draw a polygon of any number 
of sides, so that that line shall be one side of a polygon . . 37 

Method of drawing curved lines ; Problem VIII. To draw an 
ellipse with the rule and compasses, the transverse and con- 
jugate diameters being given 38 

Problem IX. To draw an ellipse by means of two concentric 
circles 39 

Problem X. To describe an ellipse by means of a carpenter's 
square, or a piece of a notched lathe 40 

Problem XI. To find the centre and the two axes of an ellipse . 41 

Problem XII. To draw a flat arch by the intersection of lines, 
having the opening and spring or rise given ; Problem XIII. 
To find the form or curvature of a raking moulding that shall 
unite correctly with a level one 42 

Problem XIV. To find the form or curvature of the return in an 

open or broken pediment 43 

Epitome of Mensuration: 

Of the circle, cylinder, sphere, etc. 44 

Of the square, rectangle, cube, etc • 45 

Surfaces and solidities of the regular bodies, each of whose 
boundary lines is 1 ; Of triangles, polygons, etc. . . .46 

Table of the areas of regular polygons, each of whose sides is 
unitv ; Of ellipses, cones, frustums, etc. . . . . .47 

Instrumental Arithmetic, or Utility of the Slide Rule : 

Numeration ; To multiply numbers by the rule . . . .48 

To divide numbers upon the rule ; Proportion, or rule of three 
direct : Rule of three inverse ; Square and cube roots of num- 
bers . • • • 4 9 

To find the geometrical mean proportion between two numbers ; 
Mensuration of surface; Squares, rectangles, etc.; Circles, 
polygons, etc • ■ • • °" 

Table of gauge-points for the engineer's rule; For the common 
slide rule " 

Mensuration of solidity and capacity ; Power of steam engines ; 
Of engine boilers • j|2 

Horse-power ; Nominal horse's power, condensing engine . . 53 



CONTENTS. VII 

Nominal horse-power of several non-condensing engines . . 54 
Indicated horse-power ; Mixture of air and steam ; Steam acting 
expansively ; To compute the mean pressure of steam upon a 

piston by hyperbolic logarithms 55 

Table of hyperbolic logarithms 56 

Effect of expansion with equal volumes of steam ; Gain in fuel 
and initial pressure of steam required, when acting expansively, 
compared with non-expansion, or full stroke . . . .57 
Slide valves ; To compute the lap required on the steam side of a 
valve, to cut the steam off at various portions of the stroke of 
the piston, valve without lead ; When the valve is to have 

lead 58 

Portion of the stroke of a piston at which the exhausting port is 

closed and opened ; To ascertain the breadth of the ports . . 59 
To compute the stroke of a slide valve ; To compute the lap and 
lead of locomotive valves ; Giffard's injector . . . .60 
Belts : 
To compute the stress a belt or cord is capable of transmitting . 61 
To compute the stress which is transmitted to a belt or cord . . 62 
Limes, Cements, Mortars and Concretes: 

Turkish plaster or hydraulic cement; Exterior plaster or stucco . 62 
Khorassar, or Turkish mortar; Interior plastering; Scratch coat; 

One-coat work ; Two-coat work ; Screed coat ; Screeds . . 63 
Slipped coat ; Hard finish ; Estimate of materials and labor for 
100 square yards of lath and plaster; Hydraulic; Various com- 
positions of concrete, Forts Richmond and Tompkins, U. S. ; 
Transverse strength of concrete, cements, mortars, puzzuolana 

and trass 64 

Experiments of Voisin, 1857 ; Experiments of General Totten, 
1837; Tensile strength of various cements, mortars and ma- 
sonry 65 

Crushing strength of cements, stone, etc 66 

Experiments of General Gillmore; Experiments of General 

Treussart 67 

Slacking; Bricks 68 

Fine clay; Pise; Asphalt composition; Mastic; Notes by General 

Gillmore, U. S. A. ; Pointing mortar 69 

Notes by General Totten, U. S. A. ; Mural efflorescences ; Asphalt 
flooring ; Plastering ; Cost of masonry, of various kinds, per 
cubic yard, and the volume of mortar required for each . . 70 
Artificers' Rules and Tables for computing the work 
of Bricklayers, Well-diggers, Masons, Carpenters 
and Joiners, Slaters, Plasterers, Painters, Gla- 
ziers, Pavers and Plumbers : 

Measurement of bricklayer's work 71 

A table by which to ascertain the number of bricks necessary to 
construct any piece of building from a four-inch wall to twenty- 
four inches in thi«kness 72 

Measurement of wells and cisterns ; Measurement of masons' 

work 73 

Measurement of carpenters' and joiners' work . . . .74 
Number of American iron machine-cut nails in a pound (by 

count) ; Measurement of slaters' work 76 

Slates ; Imported slates 77 

Measurement of plasterers' work ; Measurement of pavers' work 78 



Vlll CONTENTS. 

Measurement of glaziers' work ; Table showing the size and num- 
ber of lights to the 100 square feet ; Measurement of painters' 
work 79 

Measurement of plumbers' work 80 

Sewers : 

Drainage of land by pipes 80 

Sewers; Dimensions, areas and volume of work per lineal foot 
of egg-shaped sewers of different dimensions . . . .81 

Area of surface from which circular sewers will discharge water 
equal in volurrte to one inch in depth upon surface per hour in- 
cluding ordinary city drainage 82 

Arches and Abutments: 

Approximate rules and tables for the depth of arches and thick- 
ness of abutments ; Depths required for the crowns of arches . 82 

Minimum thickness of abutments for arches of 120° where the 
depth does not exceed 3 feet; Keystones; Railway bridges; 
Cost of tunnels 83 

Railway tunnels ; Shafts 84 

Iron Works (England) : 

Horse-power (indicated) required for different processes ; Rolling- 
mills 84 

Flour-mills, Saw-mills, Wood-working Machinery: 

Flour-mills 84 

Saw-mills ; Velocities of wood-working machinery in feet or revo- 
lutions per minute 85 

Sharpening angles of machine cutters 86 

Mining and Blasting : 

Mining; Blasting 86 

Projection of Water : 

Heights to which water may be projected through engine-pipes 
under pressure 86 

Power required to raise water from wells by a double-acting lifting 

pump 87 

Water-power : 

To compute water-power; Effective horse-power for different 
motors ; Hydraulic ram 87 

Jet pump; Imperial gallons; Waves 88 

Solders ; Composition for welding cast-steel ; Fusible compounds ; 
Soldering fluid for use with soft solder 89 

Fluxes for soldering or welding ; Babbitt's anti-attrition metal . 90 
Miscellaneous Notes : 

Dimensions of drawings for patents : Service train of a quarter- 
master ; Tides 90 

Silica and carbon ; Sound ; Wire and hemp ropes ; Endless ropes ; 
Brief rules for the computation of the weights of cast-iron 

Eipes and cast and wrought-iron bolts ; Malleable or aluminium 
ronze 91 

Strength of Materials : 

Elasticity and strength 91 

Modulus of elasticity . .92 

To compute the weight of the modulus of elasticity of a sub- 
stance ; To compute the weight when the height is given ; To 
compute the height of the modulus of elasticity . . .93 

Modulus of elasticity and weight of various substances ; To com- 
pute the length of a prism of a material, which would be 



CONTENTS. IX 

severed by its own weight when suspended ; Modulus of cohe- 
sion or length in feet required to tear asunder certain sub- 
stances ; Tensile strength 94 

Elements connected with the tensile resistance of various sub- 
stances 96 

Tensile Strength of Materials : 

Weight or power required to tear asunder one square inch ; 
Metals . 96 

Miscellaneous substances ; Compositions; Woods . . .97 

Eesults of experiments on the tensile strength of wrought-iron 
tie-rods; Wire ropes, result of experiments on the tensile 
strength of iron and steel wire ropes ; Extension of cast-iron 
bars when suspended vertically ; Steel ; Transverse strength . 98 

Relative stiffness of materials to resist a transverse strain . . 100 

Transverse strength of materials deduced from experiments ; 
Increase in strength of several woods by seasoning . . . 101 

Concretes, cements, etc. ; Transverse strength of cast-iron bars 
and oak beams of various figures 102 

Transverse strength of solid and hollow cylinders of various 
materials ; Brick work ; To compute the transverse strength of 
a rectangular beam or bar 103 

To compute the pressure upon the ends or upon the supports . 105 

To compute the transverse strength of cylinders, ellipses, etc.; 
To compute the diameter of a solid cylinder to support a given 
weight 106 

To compute the relative value of materials to resist a transverse 
strain 107 

Relative strength of cast and malleable iron ; Girders, beams, 
lintels, etc 108 

To compute the dimensions and form of a girder or beam . .110 

Floor beams, girders, etc.; To compute the depth of a floor 
beam 112 

Header and trimmer beams ; Girder 113 

The new or metric system of measures and weights; Measures of 
length ; Measures of surface ; Measures of volume ; Measures 
of weight 114 

Transverse strength of cast-iron girders and beams deduced from 
experiments 115 

Crushing strength of various materials deduced from experi- 
ments 116 

Crushing strength 117 

Wrought iron plates, cylindrical tubes ; Expansion or dilatation 

of solids 118 

Dams and Tunnels : 

Dams (earth-work) ; Proportion of laborers in bank, fillers, and 
wheelers in different soils, wheelers being estimated for a dis- 
tance of fifty yards 118 

Masonry; Tunnels 119 

Wind-Mills : 

To compute the angles of the sails ; Axis of shaft of wind-mill 

with horizon ; Strength of ice 119 

Stiffness of Beams : 

Stiffness of beams ; Resistance to detrusion ; To compute the 
length necessary to resist a given horizontal thrust, as in the 
case of a rafter "let into a tie-beam 120 



X CONTENTS. 

Revolving Disk: 

To compute the power; Power concentrated in moving bodies ; 
Shrinkage of castings ' 120 

Vernier scale ; Comparative weight of timber in a green and sea- 
soned state; To compute the weight of cast metal by the 

weight of the pattern 121 

Strength of Materials : 

Bar of iron ; Bridges ; Floors ; Roofs ; Beams .... 122 

Models proportioned to machines 123 

Table of Manilla rope ; The strength of Manilla ropes ; Tarring 
of ropes 124 

Rule for finding the strength of rope ; Table of wire rope manu- 
factured by John A. Roebling's Sons Co., Trenton, N. J. ; 
Notes on the use of wire rope, by Mr. Roebling . . 125 

Weight and strength of iron chains; Table of strength of chains 127 

Weight of railroad spikes ; Hook-headed spikes ; Size of spikes 
in common use ; Adhesion of spikes 128 

Funk's experiments on the force necessary to extract spikes ; 
Force required to separate boards of oak or pine nailed together ; 
Weight of nails 129 

A table showing the weight or pressure a beam of cast-iron 1 inch 
in breadth will sustain, without destroying its elastic force 
when it is supported at each end, and loaded in the middle of 
its length, and also the deflection in the middle which that 
weight will produce 130 

To find the weight of a cast-iron beam of given dimensions ; 
Resistance of bodies to flexure by vertical pressure ; To deter- 
mine the dimensions of a support or column to bear, without 
sensible curvature, a given pressure in the direction of its 
axis 131 

Elasticity of torsion or resistance of bodies to twisting ; To deter- 
mine the side of a square shaft to resist torsion with a given 
flexure 132 

Relative strength of bodies to resist torsion 132 

Strength of Beams : 

Solid, rectangular and round — to find their strength . . . 133 

To find the breaking weight in lbs. ; To find the proper size for 
any given purpose 134 

Solid columns ; To find the strength of any wrought-iron column 
with square ends 135 

To find the strength of round columns exceeding 25 diameters 
in length ; Tables of powers for the diameters and lengths of 
columns 136 

Hollow columns ; Square columns of plate iron riveted ; To find 
the strength of any hollow wrought-iron column ; Columns of 
oblong sections 137 

Round columns of plate iron riveted ; Crane; To find the strain 
on the post . . . . . 138 

Cold water pump ; To find the proper size under any circum- 
stances capable of applying twice the quantity ordinarily used 
for injection ; Pedestal"; Bracket ; Friction ; Centrifugal force 139 

Weights and volumes of various substances in ordinary use . 140 

Weight of one foot of flat bar iron ; Weight of one square foot 
of sheet iron, etc. 141 



CONTENTS. XI 

Russia sheet iron ; Weight of one square foot of plate iron, etc. ; 
Weight of one foot in length of square and round bar iron . 142 

Cast-iron, weight of a foot in length of square and round; Steel, 
weight of a foot in length of fiat 143 

Patent improved lead pipe, sizes and weight per foot; Brass, 
copper, steel and lead, weight of a foot ; Cast-iron, weight of 
a superficial foot from i to 2 inches thick .... 144 

Cast-iron, weight of a foot in length of flat cast-iron . . . 145 
Weight : 

To find the weight of any casting; To find the weight from the 
areas 145 

Logs reduced to one inch board measure 146 

Solid contents of equal-sided timber 147 

Wheel Gearing: 

Technical terms of wheels, etc 148 

To compute the pitch of a wheel ; To compute the true or chor- 
dial pitch 149 

To compute the diameter of a wheel ; To compute the number of 
teeth in a wheel ; To compute the diameter when the true 
pitch is given ; To compute the number of teeth in a pinion 
or follower to have a given velocity ; To compute the propor- 
tional radius of a wheel or pinion 150 

To compute the diameter of a pinion, when the diameter of the 
wheel and number of teeth in the wheel and pinion are given ; 
To compute the number of teeth required in a train of 
wheels to produce a given velocity ; To compute the circum- 
ference of a wheel ; To compute the revolutions of a wheel or 
pinion ; To compute the velocity of a pinion .... 151 

To compute the proportion that the velocities of the wheels in a 
train should bear to one another ; General illustrations . . 152 

To compute the diameter of a wheel for a given pitch and num- 
ber of teeth ; To compute the pitch of a wheel for a given 
diameter and number of teeth 153 

Pitch of wheels, a table whereby to compute the diameter of a 
wheel for a given pitch, or the pitch for a given diameter . 154 

To compute the number of teeth of a wheel for a given diameter 
and pitch; Change wheels in screw-cutting lathes; To deter- 
mine the proportion of wheels for screw-cutting by a lathe . 155 

Table of change wheels for screw-cutting 156 

Strength of the teeth of cast-iron wheels at a given veloc- 
ity 157 

Wheels and Gudgeons: 

To find size of teeth necessary to transmit a given horse-power . 157 

To find the horse-power that any wheel will transmit ; To find 
the multiplying number for any wheel ; To find the size of 

teeth to carry a given load in pounds 158 

Water : 

To find the quantity of water that will be discharged through 
an orifice or pipe in the side or bottom of a vessel ; To find 
the size of hole necessary to discharge a given quantity of water 
under a given head ; To find the height necessary to discharge 
a given quantity through a given orifice ; The velocity of water 
issuing from an orifice in the side or bottom of a vessel . . 159 

To find the quantity of water that will run through an orifice 
the top of which is level with the surface of water, as over a 



Xll CONTENTS. 

sluice or dam ; To find the time in which a vessel will empty 

itself through a given orifice 160 

Gauging of Casks: 
Gauging of casks in imperial (British) gallons and also in 

United States gallons 161 

Table of the capacities of casks whose bung diameters and 

lengths are 1 or unity 162 

To ullage, or find the contents in gallons of a cask partly filled 163 
Alloys and Compositions : 

Definitions of alloy and amalgam 164 

Table of alloys and compositions 165 



ADDENDA TO PART I. 



Explanation op Diagrams for Sheet-metal Work, etc. : 
To describe a pattern for a four-piece elbow .... 166 

Pound furnace pipe 167 

Crooked furnace pipe 168 

Encasing a smoke pipe 169 

Pattern for top of milk can — Triangulation in pattern-cutting ex- 
plained 170 

To draw an oval with square and circle 172 

Explanation of Equations and Proportions: 

Definition of an equation, a term, and a factor; How to solve 

an equation ; Example 173 

Proportions; Definition of a proportion, of extremes and of 

means; Example . 174 

Weight and Specific Gravity: 

Definition of specific gravity ; To find the specific gravity of a 
solid body heavier than water ; To find the specific gravity of 
a solid body lighter than water; To find the specific gravity 
of a body which is soluble in water ; To find the specific grav- 
ity of a liquid ' . 175 

To find the weight of a body when the specific gravity is given ; 
Densities of metals; Weight of stones, and other solids, of pre- 
cious stones, peat, wood, charcoal, animal and vegetable sub- 
stances, mercury, water of the Dead Sea, olive oil, etc. . . 176 
Weight of gaseous bodies; Volume of air; Specific gravity of 
alloys ; Alloys having a greater density than the mean of their 
constituents; Alloys having a density less than the mean of 

their constituents 177 

Volume, weight and specific gravity of solid bodies; Familiar 

metals 178 

Other metals 179 

Precious stones ; Stones 180 

Sundry mineral substances 181 

Woods 182 

Wood charcoal (as powder) and (as made, heaped) . . . 184 
Wood charcoal (in small pieces, heaped) ; Animal substances . 185 
Vegetable substances; Weight and specific gravity of liquids; 
Liquids at 32° F 186 



CONTENTS. Xlll 

Weight and specific gravity of gases and vapors ; Gases at 32° F. 

and under one atmosphere of pressure 187 

Boiling Points of Liquids : 
Boiling points of liquids at atmospheric pressure; Boiling points 
of solutions of soda, etc. ; Elastic force of steam in inches of 

mercury 188 

Rules Relating to Light, Heat, Cold, etc.: 

Luminosity or shades of temperature ; Tints acquired by iron at 
various temperatures ; To determine the temperature of porce- 
lain ovens 189 

Comparative radiating or absorbent and reflecting powers of sub- 
stances .... 190 

Relative internal heat-conducting power of bodies ; Linear ex- 
pansion of solids by heat, between 32° and 212° F. . . . 191 

From 0° to 300° C. (32° to 572° F.) 192 

Glass ; Stones ; Frigorific mixtures 193 

Proportional mixtures of salts and acids with water . . 194 

Proportional mixtures of salts and acids with snow or ice ; Mix- 
tures, combined so as to increase or extend the cold to the 

greatest extremes . 195 

Management of saws 196 

Wrinkles for Engineers: 

Steam ; Properties of steam 197 

Sensible heat of steam ; Flow of steam through pipes and from a 

given orifice 198 

Table of flow of steam through pipes _ 199 

Flow of steam from a given orifice ; Air as a standard . . 200 

Water 201 

Pressure of water ; Sea water ; Ice and snow .... 202 

To cool a hot journal ; Gross power from piston areas ; Multipli- 
ers for various speeds and pressures ; Pump capacity, how to 

calculate 203 

Table of number of gallons discharged per minute by a single 
acting pump of a given diameter and stroke, at ten strokes per 

minute 204 

Cleansing surface condensers; Management of steam boilers . 206 
How boiler plates are proved ; Zinc in boilers ; Rule for finding 
the pressure it takes to lift simply the lever and valve of an 
ordinary safety valve ; Engine-room repairs .... 207 

Butt-splicing of vulcanized rubber belting 209 

The Steam-Indicator: 
Function of the indicator; Value of indicator cards . . .210 
Technical terms used in connection with the employment of the 

indicator 211 

The Crosby indicator 213 

How to attach the indicator 215 

How to take a diagram 216 

Diagrams ; To compute the average pressures .... 217 
Lubricating Oils: 
Points to be considered when purchasing lubricating oils ; Ac- 
tion of different oils upon metals 218 

Points to be considered in judging hydro-carbon oils . . .219 

Spontaneous combustion 220 

Comparative tests of the viscosity of different oils . . . 221 



XIV CONTENTS. 

Flashing points of lubricating oils generally in use ; Comparative 

value of lubricating oils; Simple test of kerosene oil . , 222 
Conditions governing the production of different grades of pig 

iron 223 

Strength and other Properties of Materials: 

Composition of cast-iron 224 

Effect of remelting on the strength of cast-iron ; Table of the 

strength, extensibility and stiffness of metals and woods . . 225 
Proportions and strength of single riveted joints in wrought-iron 
plates for girder work only ; Strength of alloys when pulled in 

the direction of their length 226 

Ultimate tensile strength of copper and its alloys, and other 

metals 227 

Hardness of wood; Weight of wood; Properties of American 
woods ; Treatment of timber . . . . . . ' . 228 

Crushing resistance or compressive strength of timber . .229 

Transverse and tensile strength of timber 230 

Crushing resistance of columns of wood 232 

Strength of stones; Fire-bricks and their properties; Tensile 

strength of stone, bricks and cement 233 

Weight, strength, etc., of building stones 235 

Crushing strength of stones and bricks 238 

Miscellaneous Rules for Computing Measurements, 
Power, etc.: 
Some comparative linear measurements; Convenient multipliers; 
Rule to compute power necessary to raise a given weight with 

a lever 240 

Working load for wire rope ; To find out how much wire it takes 
to wrap round a cylinder in a spiral ; To get the contents of a 
turnip-shaped body ; To find the weight of a cast-iron ball ; 
To measure belting in the roll ; Simple mode of calculating the 
height of an object; To compute the weight of pipes per foot . 241 
Table of Aveights per foot of wrought-iron pipe ; Comparison of 
the scales of Fahrenheit's, the Centigrade and Reaumur's 
thermometers; Definition of the "legal ohm" and of the Sie- 
mens' unit of resistance ; Wind pressure 242 

To estimate brick work ; Plastering 243 

Capacity of cylindrical cisterns; Rule for measuring cylindrical 
cisterns and wells; Table of solubility of a few aniline colors; 

Gas-holders 244 

Boiler incrustation; Lord's compound 245 

Various remedies 246 



CONTENTS. XV 



PART II. 

Rare and Valuable Receipts and Tables for Mechan- 
ical Purposes: 

Yellow brass for turning ; Red brass for turning ; Red brass, 
free, for turning; Another brass for turning; Best red brass 
for fine castings; Bronze metal ; Bell metal for large bells; 
Bell metal for small bells; Cock metal ; Hardening for Bri- 
tannia ; Good Britannia metal ; Britannia metal, second quality 
Britannia metal for casting; Britannia metal for spinning 
White solder for raised Britannia ware 247 

Britannia metal for registers ; Best Britannia for spouts ; Best 
Britannia for spoons; Best Britannia for handles; Best 
Britannia for lamps, pillars and spouts; Casting; Lining 
metal for boxes of railroad cars ; Fine silver colored metal; 
German silver, first quality for casting; German silver, second 
quality for casting ; German silver for rolling ; German silver 
for bells and other castings ; Imitation of silver; Pinchbeck; 
Tombac; Red Tombac; Hard white metal; Metal for taking 
impressions; Spanish tutania; Rivet metal; Rivet metal for 
hose; Fusible alloy; Fusible alloy for silvering glass; Best 
soft solder for cast Britannia ware ; Yellow solder for brass or 
copper ; Brass solder 248 

Solder for copper; Black solder; Soft solder; Pewterer's soft 
solder; Plumber's solder; Solder; Coppersmith's cement, etc.; 
Solder for gold; Soft gold solder; Solder for silver; White 
solder for silver; Silver solder for plated metal; Solders; 
Gold solders 249 

Solders; Silver solders ; Colored gold ; Alloys for gold ; Alloys 
for silver coin and plate ; Gilding metal; Jeweler's gold com- 
positions ; Factitious gold 250 

Harmstadt's true imitation of gold ; Harmstadt's true imitation 
of silver ; Artificial gold ; New French patent alloy for silver ; 
Alloys for gold; English standard for silver; Silver imita- 
tions 251 

French gold plate; Bidery ; Best brass for clocks; Alloy for 
watch pinion sockets; To reduce hair springs; Albata metal; 
British plate; Chantry's hard alloy; Hard white metal for 
buttons; Birmingham platin ; German silver; Britannia 
metal; Gun metal; Melting' point of metals; Chinese gong 
metal; Alloy for gun mountings; Bell metal .... 252 

White metal for table bells ; Clock bell metal ; Socket metal for 
locomotive axle trees; Brass; Alloy for mechanical instru- 
ments; Malleable brass; Button-maker's metal; Metal for 
sliding levers of locomotives; Alloy for cylinders of Jocomo- 
tives; Alloy for stufliug boxes of locomotives; Amalgam for 
mirrors; Reflector metal; Metal for gilt wares; Spurious 
silver leaf; Shot metal; Bismuth solder; Alloy for calico 
printing blocks 253 

Amalgam for electrical machines ; Type metal ; Brass for wire ; 
Britannia metal ; Bronze; Ancient bronze; Alloy for bronze 



XVI CONTENTS. 

ornaments; Beautiful red bronze powder; Bronzing fluid for 
guns; Common metal; Statuary bronze ; Bronze for medals ; 
Bronze for large cannon ; Bronze for small cannon ; Alloy for 
symbals; Mirrors of reflecting telescopes; White argentine ; 
Chinese silver 254 

Tutenag ; Printing characters; Fine white German silver ; Imi- 
tation platinum; Imitation gold; Imitation silver; Tombac 
or red brass; Parisian bell metal ; Bell metal ; Prince's metal ; 
Queen's metal; Brass: Button-maker's fine brass; Button- 
maker's common brass; Fine brass; Organ pipes; Baron Wet- 
terstedt's patent sheathing ; Lead pipe ; Lead shot; Metal for 
anatomical injections ; Yellow dipping metal .... 255 

Quick bright dipping acid for brass which has been ormolued ; 
Dipping acid; Good dipping acid for cast brass; Dipping 
acid; Ormolu dipping acid for sheet brass; Ormolu clipping 
acid for sheet or cast brass : To prepare brass work for ormolu 
dipping; To repair old nitric acid ormolu dips ; Tinning acid 
for brass or zinc; Vinegar bronze for brass; Directions for 
making lacquer ; Lacquer for dipped brass . . . 256 

Lacquer for bronzed brass ; Deep gold-colored lacquer ; Gold- 
colored lacquer for brass not dipped: Gold-colored lacquer 
for dipped brass ; Gold lacquer for brass ; Lacquer for dipped 
brass; Good lacquer; To bronze iron castings; Antique 
bronze paint ; To fill holes in castings ; Pale lacquer for tin- 
plate ; Red lacquer for brass ; Pale lacquer for brass . . 257 

Bronze dip; Parisian bronze dip ; Best lacquer for brass ; Color 
for lacquer ; Lacquer for philosophical instruments ; Brown 
bronze dip; Green bronze dip ; Aquafortis bronze dip; Olive 
bronze dip for brass ; Brown bronze paint for copper vessels ; 
Bronze for all kinds of metal ; Bronze paint for iron or brass; 
For tinning brass; Shaved or grained tin; Silvering by heat . 258 

Mixture for silvering; Separate silver from copper; Chinese 
white copper ; Bath metal ; Speculum metal ; Britannia metal ; 
Jeweler's soldering fluid ; Tinman's solder ; Pewterer's solder; 
Common pewter; Best pewter; Queen's metal; Tinning iron ; 
Tinning ; New tinning process 259 

Kustitien's metal for tinning; Watchmaker's brass; German 
brass ; Brass for heavy castings ; Yellow brass; Red brass for 
gilt articles ; Compositions ; Babbitt metal ; Fenton's anti- 
friction metal; Antifriction alloy tor journal boxes; Babbitt 
metal .260 

Alloy for journal boxes ; To gild steel ; To weld cast-iron ; To 
galvanize iron ; Muntz metal for ships; Tempering saws, etc. ; 
Silvering shells ......... 261 

Liquid foil for silvering glass globes, etc. ; To soften iron or steel ; 
Tempering; Cast-iron cement ; Cement for steam-pipe joints, 
etc., with faced flanges ; Crucibles; Black lead crucibles . 262 

To purify gas ; To joint lead plates; To joint lead pipes ; Com- 
position used in welding cast-steel ; To prevent deposits of 
lime in boilers ; Scaling cast-iron 263 

Varnish for smooth moulding patterns; Cast-iron ornaments; 
Iron lustre; To melt steel as easily as lead; Patent lubricat- 
ing oil; Black having a polish for iron; Varnish for iron; 
To restore burnt steel and improve poor steel ; Composition 



CONTEXTS. XV11 

to toughen steel ; Burglar and drill proof diamond chill ; 
How to recut old files and rasps 264 

Substitute for borax; Tempering liquids; To improve poor iron; 
Case-hardening for iron ; For malleable iron .... 265 

Case-hardening for wrought-iron ; To soften cast-iron for drill- 
ing ; To temper springs ; To mend broken saws ; Writing in- 
scriptions on metals; Black varnish for iron work; To 
petrify wood; The finest bronze 266 

Soft cement for steam-boilers, steam-pipes, etc. ; Hard cement; 
Black varnish for coal-buckets ; Soldering fluid ; Japan flow 
for tin, of all colors ; Transparent blue for iron or steel . . 267 

To tin copper stew dishes, etc. ; To copper the surface of iron, 
steel, or iron wire ; To tin iron for soldering, etc. ; Gold 
lacquer for tin, transparent, all colors ; Crystallized tin plate 268 

To crystallize tin ; Improved tinning flux ; To clean and polish 
brass ; Silvering powder ; Tin cans : To mend tinware ; Bruns- 
wick black for grates, etc. ; Gas-fitter's cement ; Plumber's 
cement ; Browning for gun-barrels 269 

Browning for twist barrels ; Browning composition for gun- 
barrels ; Varnish and polish for gun-stocks ; Hardening and 
filling for fire-proof safes ; Tempering razors, cmtlery, saws, 
etc 270 

Silversmith's stripping liquid; To silver clock faces, etc.; 
Watchmaker's drills 271 

To reduce metallic oxides ; Coating copper plates or rods with 
brass ; Solution of copper on zinc 272 

Brass solution ; Brassing iron ; To enamel cast-iroti aud hollow 
ware ; Enamel cast-iron ; To enamel copper and other vessels 273 

Emery wheels for polishing; Refining gold and silver . . 274 

Assaying alloys containing platinum ; Annealing ; Enamelling 
on gold and copper 275 

Silver plating 276 

Electro gold plating ; Electro silver plating ; Elkington's patent 
golding 277 

Gold silvering on metals ; To heighten the color of yellow gold; 
For green gold ; For red gold ; Coloring of gilding ; To take 
gold from the surface of silver ; Moulds and dies ; Polishing 
powder for gold and silver; Silver plating fluid . . . 278 

To temper gravers and drills; Jeweler's Armenian cement; 
Jeweler's Turkish cement; Reviver of old jewelry ; To re- 
cover gold from gilt metal ; To separate gold and silver from 
lace, etc. ; Door plates, to make 279 

Etching on glass ; Etching varnish 280 

Fluoric acid, to make, for etching purposes ; Glass grinding for 
signs, shades, etc. ; Gold and silver ink ; Gold lustre for stone- 
ware, china, etc. ; Gilding china and glass ; Glass staining . 281 

Stained glass pigments 282 

Silvering looking-glasses with pure silver ; Porcelain colors . 283 

Glass and porcelain gilding; Soluble glass 284 

To drill and ornament glass ; Gilding glass signs, etc. ; Gilder's 
gold size ; To gild letters on wood, etc 285 

Compound colors ; Dyes for veneers 286 

Gilder's pickle ; To silver ivory ; To improve the color of stains; 
Strong glue for inlaying or veneering ..... 287 

Conrpound iron paint ; Best wash for barns and houses ; Durable 
2 



XV1U ENGLISH AND AMERICAN MECHANIC. 

outside paint ; Farmer's paint ; Painting in milk ; Premium 
paint, without oil or lead; Green paint for garden stands, 
blinds, etc - . . 288 

Milk paint for barns ; Paint to make without lead or oil ; Substi- 
tute for white lead ; Paints, different sorts ; Beautiful green 
paints for walls _ . 289 

Blue color for ceilings, etc. ; To harden whitewash ; Whitewash 
that will not rub off; Whitewash; Substitute for plaster of 
Paris; Glue; Cheap waterproof glue; Fire and waterproof 
glue; Prepared liquid glue 290 

Prussian blue ; Chrome yellow; Chrome green; Green, durable 
and cheap; Pea brown; Rose pink; Patent yellow . . . 291 

Naples yellow ; Cheap yellow paint ; Stone color paint ; Glazier's 
putty ; Fish oil paints ; Porcelain finish veiy hard and white 
for parlors - . . 292 

Japan drier ; Drying oil equal to patent driers at one quarter 
their price; Prepared oil for carriages, etc.; Drying oils; To 
reduce oil paint with water ; Oil paint ; How to build gravel 
houses . . . 293 

Flexible paint for canvas ; Painter's cream ; Mastic cement for 
covering the fronts of houses ; Cement for outside brick walls; 
Cement for tile roofs; Excellent cheap roofing . . .294 

Water lime at fifty cents per barrel ; To render wood indestruc- 
tible ; Cement for seams in roofs 295 

Roman cement ; Smalt ; Fictitious linseed oil ; Varnishes ; Deep 
gold-colored lacquer ; Gold varnish 296 

Gold lacquer ; Polish for turner's work ; Varnish for tools ; Gold 
varnish ; Bookbinder's varnish ; Beautiful pale amber varnish ; 
Black coach varnish ; Body varnish ; Carriage varnish ; Cab- 
inetmaker's varnish ; Japanner's copal varnish . . . 297 

Copal varnish ; Gold varnish of Watin for gilded articles ; Var- 
nish for plaster casts ; Transparent varnish for ploughs, etc. ; 
Fine black varnish for coaches ; Mordant varnish ; Changing 
varnish ; Varnish, transparent for wood ; Patent varnish for 
wood or canvas 298 

Beautiful varnish for violins, etc. ; Crimson stain for musical in- 
struments; Purple stain ; Green stain ; Black stain for wood . 299 

Rose-wood stain, light shade ; Rose pink stain and varnish ; Blue 
stain for wood ; Imitation of Botany Bay wood ; Mahogany 
color ; Box- wood brown stain ; Light brown red ; Purple ; Red 300 

Ebony stain; Bright yellow stain ; Extra black stain for wood; 
Imitation of mahogany ; To imitate wainscot; To imitate satin 
wood ; Rosewood satin, very bright shade ; Varnish for frames, 
etc. ; Cherry stain ; Black walnut stain . . . . 301 

Miscellaneous stains ; Finishing with one coat of varnish ; Pol- 
ishes ; Polish for removing stains, spots and mildew from fur- 
niture ; Polish for reviving old furniture, equal to " Brother 
Jonathan ; " Jet or polish for wood or leather, black, red or 
blue .302 

Furniture fillings; Furniture polish; French polishes; Furni- 
ture fillings; Furniture cream; Furniture oils; Mosaic gold 
powder for bronzing; True gold powder 303 

Dutch gold powder; Copper powder; General directions for 
bronzing; Bronzing of plaster casts; Bronzing iron; French 
burnished gilding e ,,...». 304 



CONTENTS, XIX 

Bronzing or gilding wood ; Bronze powder of a pale gold color . 305 

Reviver for gilt frames ; Gilding on wood ; Best color for boot, 
shoe and harness edge; Cheap color for the edge; Superior 
edge blacking ; Sizing for boots and shoes in treeing out . 30& 

Black varnish for the edge ; Best harness varnish extant ; Bril- 
liant French varnish for leather; Liquid japan for leather; 
Waterproof oil blacking ; Shoemaker's heel ball ; Cement for 
leather or rubber soles and leather belting ; Oil paste blacking ; 
To dye leather blue, red, or purple ; Gold varnish . . . 30? 

Grain black for harness leather; Stains for wood and leather; 
Deer skins, tanning and buffing for gloves .... 308 

Liquid red; Bridle stain; Process of tanning calf, kip and har- 
ness leather in from six to thirty days; To tan raw hide; 
French finish for leather; French patent leather . . . 309 

Cheap tanning without bark or mineral astringents; Canadian 
process of tanning; Fifty dollar recipe for tanning fur and 
other skins . . 310 

French polish or dressing for leather ; Currier's size ; Currier's 
paste; Currier's skirting; Skirting; Dyes for leather . . 311 

To marble books or paper; Bookbinder's varnish; Red sprinkle 
for bookbinder's red ; Tree marble 312 

To make paper into parchment ; Best cement for aquaria ; Horn 
in imitation of tortoise shell 313 

Dyes for ivory, horn and bone ; Etching fluid for ivory ; To gild 
ivory; To soften ivory; To whiten ivory; Another way to 
bleach ivory 314 

To cut and polish marble ; To stain alabaster, marble or stone ; 
Powerful cement for broken marble; Seven colors for staining 
marble ; Perpetual ink for tombstones, etc. ; To clean old mar- 
ble; To remove grease; To clean marble 315 

To make a chemical barometer; Waterproofing for clothing; To 
renew old silks; Potter's invisible waterproofing for clothing; 
To raise a nap on cloth ; Black reviver for cloth ; Trapper's 
and angler's secret for game and fish ; Easy method of pre- 
venting moths in furs or woolens 316 

Clothing renovator; Waterproofing for porous cloth; How to 
write on glass in the sun; To transfer prints, etc., to glass; 
Paper for photographing; How to photograph on glass . .317 

Bottle glass ; Crystal glass 318 

Flask glass ; Best German crystal glass ; Plate glass ; Crown 
glass; Best window glass; Looking-glass plate ; Window glass 319 

Magic paper; To make grindstones from common sand; Print- 
ing rollers ; Savage's printing ink ; How to fill holes in mill- 
stones ; Fitting a new back in an old millstone . . . 320 

Mill dams 321 

Rock dams ; Frame dams 322 

Brush or log dams 323 

To restore burnt steel and weld cast-steel ; Superior bell metal ; 
Electrum ; To write in silver; Best bronze for brass ; Another 
bronze for brass ; Zincing; Dentist's emery wheels; Incrusta- 
tion of boilers 324 

To lessen friction in machinery ; Colored glass; To take a plaster 
of Paris cast from a person's face ; To harden and temper cast 
steel ; Furniture oil 325 

To cast figures in imitation of ivory ; To print a picture from 



XX ENGLISH AND AMERICAN MECHANIC. 

the print itself ; To clean oil paintings ; To renew old oil paint- 
ings; To lengthen levers of anchor-escapement watches 
without hammering or soldering; Chain dip solution for 
brass chains, etc. ; Pickle for frosting and whitening silver 
goods 326 

Etruscan gold coloring ; How to remove tarnish on electro-plated 
ware ; To give a bright gold tinge to silver ; To make a dia- 
mond-mill ; To temper case and other springs of watches . 327 

To make red watch hands; To drill into hard steel; To case- 
harden iron ; To put teeth in watch or clock wheels without 
dovetailing or soldering; To tighten a cannon pinion on the 
centre arbor when too loose 328 

Jeweller's alloys; Bushing alloy for pivot holes, etc.; Gold 
solder to fourteen to sixteen-carat work ; The northern light 
burning fluid; To reduce oxide of zinc ..... 329 

New process to restore burnt steel ; To remove rust from iron or 
steel ; To restore frozen silver solution ; On watch cleaning . 330 

To prepare chalk for cleaning 331 

Pivot wood; Pith for cleaning; To pivot; To tell when the 
lever is of proper length ; To change depth of lever escape- 
ment 332 

To tell when the lever pallets are of proper size ; To put watches 
in beat ; To prevent a chain running off the fusee . . . 333 

To weaken the hair-spring ; To tighten a ruby pin ; To temper 
brass or to draw its temper; To temper drills; To temper 
gravers ; Other methods to temper case springs . . . 334 

To temper clicks, ratchets, etc. ; To draw the temper from deli- 
cate steel places without springing them ; To temper staffs, 
cylinders or pinions without springing them ; To draw the 
temper from part of a small steel article ; To blue screws 
evenly . 335 

To remove blueing from steel ; To make diamond broaches ; To 
make polishing broaches ; To make diamond files; To make 
pivot files ; To make burnishers 336 

To prepare a burnisher for polishing; To clean a clock; To 
bush ; To remedy worn pinions ; To oil properly . . . 337 

To make the clock strike correctly ; A defect to look after; To 
refine gold; To refine silver ; To refine copper . . . 338 

To hard solder gold, silver, copper, brass, iron, steel or platina; 
To soft solder articles ; To cleanse gold tarnished in solder- 
ing ; To cleanse silver tarnished in soldering ; To make gold 
solution for electro-plating 339 

To make silver solution for electro-plating; To plate with a 
battery 340 

To make gold amalgam ; To plate with gold amalgam ; To 
make and apply gold plating solution 341 

To make and apply gold plating powders ; To make and apply 
silver plating solution; To make and apply silver plating 
powder; To frost watch movements; To enamel gold and 
silver 342 

To destroy the effects of acid on clothes ; To wash silverware ; 
To cleanse brushes ; To cut glass round or oval without a dia- 
mond ; To re-black clock hands; Improved wood filling com- 
position ; Planing metals ; Planing perpendicularly ; Gear 
cutting 343 



CONTENTS. XXI 

Depth of teeth ; Measuring to find the number of teeth ; Bevel 
gears 344 

Draw-filing and finishing ; Lining boxes with Babbitt metal ; 
Making lining metal ; Putting machines together ; To drill a 
hole where you have no reamer ; Boring a hole with a boring 
tool .345 

Squaring or facing up cast-iron surfaces ; Boring holes with 
boring arbor; To make a boring arbor and tool that will not 

chatter 340 

Cements : 

Rust joint, quick setting ; For steam-boilers, steam-pipes, etc. ; 
Maltha or Greek mastic _ . 346 

Cement for china ; For earthen and glassware ; For holes in 
casting ; For marble; For marble workers and coppersmiths ; 
Transparent for glass ; To mend ironware ; For cisterns 
and water casks ; Hydraulic cement paint ; Entomologist's 

cement 347 

Browning: 

Browning or bronzing liquid 347 

Browning for gun barrels ; Hardening compound used in Da- 
mascus sword blades 348 

Lacquers : 

For small arms, or water-proof paper ; For bright iron work . 348 
Inks: 

Indelible for marking linen, etc. ; Perpetual for tombstones, 

marble, etc. ; Copying ink 348 

Glues : 

For parchment ; Rice glue or Japanese cement .... 348 

Liquid glue ; Marine glue ; Strong glue ; Gum mucilage ; Glue 

to resist moisture 349 

Varnishes : 

Water-proof; To adhere engravings or lithographs upon wood ; 
For harness ; For fastening leather on top rollers ; To pre- 
serve glass from the rays of the sun ; For water-color draw- 
ings 349 

For objects of natural history, for shells, fish, etc. ; For articles 
of iron and steel; For gun barrels after browning; Black; 
Balloon varnish ; Transfer varnish ; To clean varnish ; Com- 
position for rendering canvas water-proof and pliable ; Good 

painting ; Painting of brick work 350 

Miscellaneous : 

To clean marble ; To extract grease from stone or marble ; Paint 
for window glass; Durable paste; Dubbing; Blacking for 
harness; To prevent iron from rusting; Paper for draughts- 
men, etc.; To remove old iron mould; Pastiles for fumigat- 
ing; For writing upon zinc lables 351 

Booth's grease for railway axles; Anti-friction grease; Liard ; 
Stains, to remove ; Preservative paste for objects of natural 
history ; Paste for cleaning metals ; Watchmaker's oil which 
never corrodes or thickens ; Blacking, without polishing ; To 
preserve sails ; Whitewash ; To preserve woodwork ; To polish 
wood 352 

To clean brass ornaments; Adhesive cement for fractures of all 
kinds , 353 



XX11 ENGLISH AND AMERICAN MECHANIC. 



ADDENDA TO PART II. 



Alloys : 

Aluminium and its alloys 354 

Aluminium bronze . 355 

Aluminium brass; Test of aluminium bronze and aluminium 
brass ; Government gun-bronze 357 

Aluminium bronze and nickel alloys ; Alloy of aluminium and 
gold 358 

Alloysof aluminium and silver; Tiers argent; Alloy of alumin- 
ium and tin ; Alloys of aluminium and iron .... 359 

Brazing aluminium bronze; Soldering aluminium bronze; 
Phosphor bronze 360 

Manganese alloys 361 

Manganese steel ; Hadfield's manganese steel ; Malleable bronze 362 

Composition of some alloys ; Silicon telephone wire A ; Silicon 
telegraph wire A ; Silicon brass; Mira metal; Delta metal . 363 

Locomotive brass castings ; New alloys ; An alloy resembling 
gold r . . .364 

Non-magnetic alloys; Alloys of copper with silver and gold; 
An alloy which expands on cooling ; Acid-resisting bronze . 365 

Alloys of lead, antimony and tin; German silver alloy; Sidera- 
phite; Bismuth bronze ; Alloy for moulds for iron founding . 366 

Alloys of copper with nickel ; Tombac; Fusible alloy . . 367 

Alloys of cadmium and bismuth; Iron alloy .... 368 
Bone, Ivory, Mother-of-Pearl, Wood : 

To stain bone and ivory brown ; To make horn buttons irides- 
cent . 369 

To cleanse ivory ornaments ; Dyeing mother-of-pearl ; Impreg- 
nation of wooden barrels, etc., for the reception of fat, oil and 
petroleum ; Impregnation of wood 370 

To prevent warping of wood ; To preserve wooden posts ; Stain 
for oak ; Darkening the natural hue of wood ; To give new 
oak, wainscoting and furniture an antique appearance; Ebony 
color upon wood 371 

A beautiful gray-green color upon wood ; Dark green upon 
wood ; To color wood black ; Ivory gloss on wood ; Crystalline 
coating upon wood or paper ; To protect wood exposed to the 
influence of acids and high tension of steam . . . .372 

Prevention of worms in wood-work ; To give wood some of the 
special characteristics of metal ; Imitation of wood carving . 373 

Waxing hard wood floors ; Veneering 374 

Gilding of wood moulding, cornices and frames . . . 376 

Novelty in inlaid floors; To prevent exudations of turpentine 
from pine wood 377 

To remove paint from a wooden carving without damaging the 

wood 378 

Bronzing, Coloring, Electroplating, Enameling, Etc., op 
Metals : 

Bronzing of tin ; To bronze zinc fret work ; Bronzing copper ; To 
bronze steam-pipes used for steam-heating .... 378 



CONTENTS. XX111 

Approved coatings for metals ; Protecting iron and steel by- 
electrolysis 379 

Bronze-colored coating of oxide upon iron _ 380 

Coating to protect wrought-iron pipes against rust ; To enamel 
cast-iron ; Enamelling masses for utensils and sheet iron ; To 
color iron ; Coating for cast-iron 381 

Coloring and polishing brass 382 

To blue small sheet-steel articles ; Eed stain for copper articles ; 
To produce a silver-white coating on brass ; Baths for copper- 
ing zinc plates 383 

Brush coppering for iron and steel ; Tinning copper without heat- 
ing ; To zinc old and new parts 384 

Tinning by simple immersion ; Electroplating with aluminium ; 
Electroplating with bismuth 385 

Electro-plating with the platinum metals; Cheap mode of 
coating metals with platinum; To unite nickel, etc., with 
platinum 386 

Nickel-plating; Electroplating with nickel; A new nickel 
bath 387 

Nickelling of tin-lead alloys ; Nickelling of polished articles of 
iron and steel 388 

To coat zinc with nickel ; To imitate nickel-plating ; Cold silver 
plating 389 

Silvering without a battery ; Silvering iron ; Powder for silver- 
ing 390 

Celluloid, Rubbf.r, etc. : 

How celluloid is made 390 

Preparation of celluloid burning with difficulty ; Printing upon 
celluloid ; Mass for trunk frames ; To repair torn rubber belts 
and hose; To connect pieces of rubber 391 

To make articles of rubber odorless ; Manufacture of rubber 

type ; Rubber stamp ink 392 

Cements, Mortars, Mucilage, Paste, Plaster of Paris : 

A good cement for various purposes ; Roofing cement ; Cement 
for repairing stone structures; Cement for bisque . . .393 

Very adhesive cement ; To fasten leather to cast-iron; Cement 
from chloride of zinc ; Cement to fasten porcelain letters ; 
Flexible cement ; Cement for mending valuable glassware ; 
Cement for glass and brass ; Cement for rendering water-tight 
the joints of wooden casks, cisterns, etc 394 

Cement for filling out holes, joints and cracks in window-frames ; 
Cement for repairing defective zinc ornaments ; New cement 
for bake-ovens ; Metal cement ; Cement for filling brass and 
zinc signs ; To reunite broken belting 395 

Stratena ; Glue for damp places ; Moisture-resisting glue ; Roman 
mortar ; Making mortar 396 

French concrete; To change quick-setting cement into slow- 
setting; Plastering outside brick- walls ; Mucilage for attach- 
ing labels to tin 397 

Elastic mucilage ; Preparation of dextrin solution for gumming ; 
Paste for manufacturers of paper bags ; Paste for fastening 
paper upon tin foil, etc. ; Paste suitable for preserving the 
gloss of patent leather and preventing cracking; New method 
of hardening and coloring plaster of Paris . . . .398 

Marble imitation 399 



XXIV ENGLISH AND AMERICAN MECHANIC. 

Fire-extinguishing and Fire-proofing Mediums : 

Fire-extinguishing agents; Munich fire-extinguishing agent; 
Vienna fire-extinguishing agent ; Other mixtures ; Johnstone's 
fire-extinguishing agent; Hand-granades for extinguishing | 

fire ; Fire-proofing mediums 399 

Rendering textiles fire-proof; Preparation of fire-proof crucibles, 
bricks, etc. ; Fire-proof material for nozzles, etc. . . . 401 
Glass, Porcelain, etc. : 

Frosted glass ; New method of deadening and graining glass and 
mirror plates; To file glass utensils; Cutting glass by elec- 
tricity ; To drill glass ; To drill majolica and porcelain . . 402 
Pencil for writing on glass, etc. ; Electro-plating glass and por- 
celain ; To perforate earthen vessels 403 

Lacquers, Paints, Varnishes, etc. : 

Aluminium palmitate -. 403 

Irou palmitate varnish for water-proofing paper, tissues, etc. ; 

Zapon a new lacquer 404 

Mattolein or dull (matt) lacquer; Preparation of resin pigments 405 

French polish 406 

Furniture polish ; Varnishes for toys ; Transparent varnish for 

metals; Copal varnish for labels 407 

Varnishing marble paper; How to keep varnish; Marbling; 
Italian pink marble surface ; Florentine marble ; Verde 
antique marble; How to handle and lay gold leaf . . . 408 
Japan dryer; Gold beetle-colored bronze; Approved method of 

painting tin roofs 409 

New method of rendering brick walls impermeable to water ; To 
renovate old brick walls ; Whitewash for indoor work ; To 
prepare zinc for painting; Water-proof whitewash . . . 410 
Metal and Stone : 
Polishing agents for metals; Polishing (Putz) soaps . . . 410 
Polishing (Putz) pomades ; Polishing powders ; Polishing rags ; 
Polishing water ; Polishing agents for noble metals ; Polishing 
powder for gold workers; Polishing powders for silver . .411 
English silver soap; English rose-color silver soap; Polishing 
balls for silver; Silver polishing (Putz) pomade; Polishing 
paste for brass ; Rouge for polishing metals . . . .412 
Cleaning metal and stone work ; To clean marble ornaments . 413 

Polishing granite 414 

To mend a broken dial ; How to remove old watch jewels when 
set in the plate; How to fasten a ribbon into gold mountings; 
To frost watch plates; To clean silverware; To renovate 

nickel watch-movements 415 

To remove rust from nickel-plated articles; To clean old brass ; 
To restore the lustre of dead silver work, gilt clock cases, etc. ; 
Recutting files by electricity ; To renovate old files ; Detec- 
tion of iron or steel ; Simple method to ascertain the quality 

of iron or steel 416 

To detect alloys in gilding; Bending of cast-iron; Softening 
cast-iron ; To make a flange joint that will not leak or burn 
out; New way of annealing steel; Two ways of annealing 

steel 417 

Electricity for tempering steel ; Heating steel . . . .418 
Etching liquid for steel ; Adam Schaefer's fluid for hardening 
steel ; To prevent the baking of moulding sand , . .419 



CONTENTS. XXV 

Cores in heavy castings; Melting zinc; Eefining and reducing 

zinc electrically 420 

Eefining silver by electrolysis ; Tempering magnets ; Glycerine 

for sharpening edge-tools; To mend patterns .... 421 
For packing the neck of a retort ; Solvent for rust ; To remove 

rust from iron; To loosen rusted screws; Rolled bars direct 

from molten metal 422 

Improved method of welding 424 

Electric welding ; Prof. Elihu Thomson's process . . . 425 

Applications of electric welding 426 

Strength of electric welds; " Electrohephestos ; " M. M. de Ber- 

nados and Olszewsky's process 427 

Manufacture of wire 430 

Tenacity of metallic wires at various temperatures . . .434 
Tensile strength of wire phosphor-bronze, copper, brass, steel 

and iron 435 

Comparative table of wire gauges 436 

How to fish wire ; Sawing stone by helicoidal wire rope . . 438 

Hints for preserving tools 439 

Iron parts ; Rust preventives 440 

Rust removers 441 

Solders and Soldering : 

Composition of solders . . , -. 441 

Table of solders ; Soft solders; Hard solders; Cold solder . 442 

Soldering with dry lead chloride; Soldering cast-iron; To 

solder cast-iron objects; To make platinum adhere to gold ; 

Brazing with brass or copper 443 

To color soft solder ; To remove tarnish from gold after hard 

soldering; Gold paint to conceal soft solder .... 444 
Miscellaneous : 

India ink, and how it is made 444 

Fixing India ink ; Manufacture of smokeless powder . .445 
Preservation of ropes; Detonating composition for electrical 

fuses 446 

Imitation frost crystals ; Hectograph paper sheets ; Rust-proof 

wrapping paper ; Preparation of water-proof packing paper . 447 
Water-proof paper ; Paper that resists the action of both fire and 

water; To take creases out of drawing paper or drawings; 

Marking on blue prints 448 

Scouring and bleaching feathers; To color moss . . .449 

Cleaning oil; Making tissues brilliant; Ink eraser; Absolute 

alcohol obtained without distillation ; Cheap jacketing for 

steam-pipes; Renovating picture frames 450 

Liquid stove polish; Test for the quality of leather; How to 

polish sea-shells; Incombustible wick ; "Glycerine, some of its 

practical uses 451 

Index 453 



THE 

AMERICAN AND ENGLISH MECHANIC. 



Part I. 

EXPLANATION OF DIAGRAMS. 



To find the Circumference of any Diameter. 

Fig. 1. 




From the centre C describe a circle AB, having the required 
diameter ; then place the corner of the square at the centre C, and 
draw the lines C D and C E ; then draw the chord D E : three times 
the diameter added to the distance from the middle of the chord 
DFE to the middle of the subtending arc DGrE, will be the cir- 
cumference sought. 



To find the Area of the Sector of a Circle. 

Rule. — Multiply the length of the arc D G E by its radius D C, 
and half the product is the area. 

The length of the arc D G E equal 9J feet, and the radii C D, C E, 
equal 7 feet, required the area. 

9-5X7 = 66-5 -f- 2 = 33-25 the area. 



PROPORTION OF CIRCLES 

Proportion of Circles. 

Fig. 2. 




To enable machinists to enlarge or reduce machinery wheels 
without changing their respective motion. 

First, describe two circles AB and C D the size of the largest 
wheels which you wish to change to a large or small machine, 
with the centre P of the smaller circle C D on the circumference 
of the large one A B ; then draw two lines L M and N tangent to 
the circles A B and C D, and a line I K passing through their cen- 
tres P and R; then if you wish to reduce the machine, describe a 
circle the size you wish to reduce it to ; if one-half, for example, 
have the centre Q one-half the distance from R to S and describe 
the circle E F, and on its circumference T as a centre, describe a 
circle G H, allowing their circumferences to touch the tangent lines 



TO DESCRIBE AN ELLIPSE. 5 

L M and N 0, which will make the circle E F one-half the size of 
the circle A B, and G H one-half the size of C D ; therefore E F and 
GH are in the same proportion to each other as AB and CD. 

If you wish to reduce one-third, have the centre Q one-third the 
distance from R to S ; if one-fourth, have the centre Q one-fourth 
the distance from R to S, and so on. This calculation may be np- 
plied beyond the centre R for enlarging machine wheels, which 
will enable you to make the alteration without changing their re- 
spective motion. 



To describe an Ellipse, or Oval. 

[Simple Method.] 

Fig. 3. 




At a given distance, equal to the required eccentricity of the 
ellipse, place two pins, A and B, and pass a string, A C B, round 
them ; keep the string stretched by a pencil or tracer, C, and move 
the pencil along, keeping the string all the while equally tense, 
then will the ellipse C G L F H be described. A and B are the foci 
of the ellipse, D the centre, DA or DB the eccentricity, EF the 
principal axis or longer diameter, GH the shorter diameter, and 
if from any point L in the curve a line be drawn perpendicular to 
the axis, then will L K be an ordinate to the axis corresponding to 
the point L, and the parts of the axis E K, K F into which LK di- 
vides it are said to be the abscissae corresponding to that ordinate. 



NOTE. — Oval,. A curve line, the two diameters of which are of unequal 
length, and is allied in form to the ellipse. An ellipse is that figure which is 
produced hy cutting a cone or cylinder in a direction oblique to its axis, and 
passing through its sides. An oval may be formed by joining different segments 
of circles, so that their meeting shall not be perceived, but form a continuous 
curve line. All ellipses are ovals, but all ovals are not ellipses ; for the term 
oval may be applied to all egg-shaped figures, those which are broader at. one 
end than the other, as well as those whose ends are equally curved. 



TO DESCRIBE AN ELLIPSE, 
To describe an Ellipse. 

Fig. 4. 




To describe an ellipse of any length and width, and by it to 
describe a pattern for the sides of a vessel of any flare. 

First draw an indefinite line D E perpendicular to the line A B, 
and from C, the point of intersection, as a centre, describe a circle 
F G, having the diameter equal to the length of the ellipse ; from 
the same centre C describe a circle H J equal to the width ; then 



TO DESCRIBE AN ELLIPSE. 7 

describe the end circles L E7 and L K, as much less than the width 
as the width is less than the length ; then draw the lines M N and 
M N tangent to the circles K7L, H J and K L ; from the middle of 
the line MN at erect a perpendicular produced until it intersects 
the indefinite line D E ; from the point of intersection P as a cen- 
tre, describe the arc K7H K, and with the same sweep of the divi- 
ders mark the point R on the line D E ; from the point R draw the 
lines RU and R V through the points K / and K where the arc K7 
H K touches the end circles E7L and KL ; then place one foot of 
the dividers on the point R and span them to the point H, and de- 
scribe the arc Q / H Q, which will be equal in length to the arc K7 
HK; from the same centre R describe the arc U W V the width 
of the pattern ; then span the dividers the diameter of the end 
circle KL ; place one foot of the dividers on the line R V, at point 
Q, and the other at Y as a centre, describe the arc QT the length 
of the curve line K G, and with the same sweep of the dividers de- 
scribe the arc T / Q / from the centre Y / on the line RU; then span 
the dividers from Y / to U, and from Y / as a centre, describe the 
arc U X, and from Y as a centre, describe the arc V X, which com- 
pletes the description of the pattern. 

The more flare you wish the pattern to have, the nearer the 
centre point R must be to H ; and the less flare, the further the 
centre point R must be from H ; in the same proportion as you 
move the centre R towards, or from H, you must move the centre Y 
towards, or from Q, or which would be the same as spanning the 
dividers less, or greater, than the diameter of the end circle KL. 

To find the Circumference of an Ellipse. 

Rule. — Multiply half the sum of the two diameters by 3-1416, 
and the product will be the circumference. 

Example. — Suppose the longer diameter 6 inches and the shorter 
diameter 4 inches, then 6 added to 4 equal 10, divided by 2 equal 
5, multiplied by 3-1416 equal 15-7080 inches circumference. 



To find the Area of an Ellipse. 

Rule. — Multiply the longer diameter by the shorter diameter, 
and by -7854, and the product will be the area. 

Example. — Required the area of an ellipse whose longer diam- 
eter is 6 inches and shorter diameter 4 inches. 

6 X 4 X -7854 = 18-8496, the area. 



8 TO DESCRIBE A EIGHT ANGLED ELBOW. 



To describe a Right Angled Elbow. 

Fig. 5. 

A 




First construct a rectangle ADE B equal in width to the diam- 
eter of the elbow, and the length equal to the circumference ; then 
from the point J, the middle of the line AB, draw the line JH, and 
from the point F, the middle of the line AD, draw the line F6; 
from the point J draw two diagonal lines JD and JE ; then span 
the dividers so as to divide one of these diagonal lines into six 
equal parts, viz., J, L, 0, T, 0, V, E; from the point L erect a 
perpendicular, produced to the line J H ; from the point of contact 
M, as a centre, describe the arc N J for the top of the elbow, 
and from the points M / and M / as centres,, with the same sweep 
of the dividers, describe the arcs N and N ; then draw an in- 
definite straight line PQ tangent to the arcs NO and N J, having 
the points of contact at S and S ; on this tangent line erect a per- 
pendicular passing through the point N produced until it inter- 
sects the line BE produced; then place one foot of the dividers 
on the point of intersection R and span them over the dotted line 
to the point T, and with the dividers thus spanned describe the 
arcs T S, T S, T S, and T S ; these arcs and the arcs NO, N J 0, 
and N will be the right angled elbow required. 



TO DESCRIBE A STRAIGHT ELBOW 

To describe a Straight Elbow. 

[Old Method.] 
Fig. 6. 



1 


2 










^ 


L--" 


— ^ 


^ri— 






^ 


*;— 


\ 




















,/ 


2 








' 






to"! 










*\ 




1 






1 

5/ 




& 












' 




,1 








f> 


i/T 














1 


f 


^ 


6 




>w 


- u 















1 




_f^ 


i 



B 



Mark out the length and depth of the elbow, ABCD; draw a 
semicircle at each end, as from AB and C D; divide each semi- 
circle into eight parts ; draw horizontal lines as shown from 1 to 
1, 2 to 2, etc.; divide the circumference or length, ACBD, into 
sixteen equal parts, and draw perpendicular lines as in figure ; 
draw a line from a to b and from b to c, and on the opposite side 
from d to e and e to /; for the top sweep set the dividers on fourth 
line from top and sweep two of the spaces ; the same at the corner ; 
on space for the remaining sweeps set the dividers so to intersect 
in the three corners of the spaces marked X . The seams must 
be added to drawing. 



To describe a Curved Elbow. 
Fig. 7. 




10 TO DESCRIBE A CUEVED ELBOW, 

Fig. 8, 




Describe two circles U X and V / S, the curves desired for the 
elbow, having the distance from U to V / equal to the diameter ; 
then divide the circle V / , W, R and S, into as many sections as 
desired ; then construct a rectangle, Fig. 8, A D E B, the width 
equal to the width of one section V / W, Fig. 7, and the length equal 
to the circumference of the elbow: then span the dividers from 
the point R to the point P at the dotted line, Fig. 7, and with the 
dividers thus spanned mark the points F F / Fig. 8, from points A 
and D, and draw the lines F G and F / G / ; from point I draw the 
two diagonal lines I F and IG, span the dividers so as to divide 
one of these diagonal lines into six equal parts, viz., I, L, 0, T, 0, 
V, G ; from the point L erect a perpendicular line produced until it 
intersects the line I H produced ; from the point of intersection M, 
as a centre, describe the arc N 10 for the top of the elbow; with 
the same sweep of the dividers describe the arcs N and N ; then 
draw an indefinite straight line P Q tangent to the arcs N and 
N I, having the points of contact at S and S; on this tangent line 
erect a perpendicular line passing through the point N (same as 
in Fig. 5), produced until it intersects the line BE produced; then 
place one foot of the dividers on the point of intersection and span 
them over the dotted line to the point T, (same as in Fig. 5), and 
with the dividers spanned describe the arcs T S, T S, T S, and T 



TO DESCRIBE A STRAIGHT ELBOW. 11 

S; these arcs and the arcs N 0, N I and N, will be one side of 
the section, and by the same rule the other side of the section may- 
be described at the same time, which will be a pattern to cut the 
other sections by. 



To describe a Straight Elbow. 

[Another Method for describing a Straight Elbow.] 
Figs. 9 and 10. 



Fig. 10. 













/ 


















tf 














c 


/ 


^ 








d 


c 









y 


/ 

'- 














\ 


J 


** 



Fig. 9. 




Pig. 9. — Draw a profile of half of the elbow wanted, and mark a 
semicircle on the line representing the diameter, divide the semi- 
circle into six equal parts, draw perpendicular lines from each 
division on the circle to the angle line as on figure. 

Fig. 10. — Draw the circumference and depth of elbow wanted, 
and divide into twelve equal parts ; mark the height of perpendic- 
ular lines of Fig. 9 on Fig. 10 a b c, etc. ; set your dividers the 
same as for the semicircle and sweep from etoe intersecting with 
/ and the same from a to the corner, then set the dividers one- 
third the circumference and sweep from e to d each side, and from 
a to b each side at bottom ; then set your dividers three-fourths of 
the circumference and sweep from c to d each side on top, and from 
c to b at bottom, and you obtain a more correct pattern than is 
generally used. Allow for the lap or seam outside of your draw- 
ing, and lay out the elbow deep enough to put together by swedge 
or machine. Be careful in dividing and marking out, and the 
large end will be true without trimming. The seams must be 
added to drawing. 



12 TO DESCRIBE BEVEL COVERS. 

To describe Bevel Covers for Vessels, or Breasts 
for Cans. 

Fig. 11. 




From as a centre, describe a circle D E larger than the vessel; 
and from C as a centre, describe a circle A B the size of the ves- 
sel, then with the dividers the same as you described the circle the 
size of the vessel, apply them six times on the circumference of 
the circle larger than the vessel; for can-breasts describe the cir- 
cle F G the size you wish for the opening of the breast. 



To describe Pitched Covers for Pails, eto. 

Fig. 12. 




To cut for pitched covers, draw a circle one inch larger than 
the hoop is in diameter after burring, then draw a line from the 



OVAL BOILEE COVER 



13 



centre to the circumference as in the figure, and one inch from 
the centre and connecting with this line draw two more lines, the 
ends of which shall be one inch on either side of the line firsl 
drawn, and then cut out the piece. 



To describe an Oval Boiler Cover. 

Fig. 13. 




From C as a centre, describe a circle whose diameter will be 
equal to the width of the boiler outside of the wire, and draw the 
line A B perpendicular to the line E F, having it pass through the 
point D, which is one-half of the length of the boiler ; then mark 
the point J one quarter of an inch or more as you wish, for the 
pitch of the cover, and apply the corner of the square on the line 
AB, allowing the blade to fall on the circle at H, and the tongue 
at the point J ; then draw the lines H B, B J, G A and A J, which 
completes the description. 



14 TO DESCRIBE A LIP TO A MEASURE, 
To describe a Lip to a Measure, 

Fig.. 14. 




Let the circle A B represent the size of the measure ; span the 
dividers from K to F three-quarters of the diameter; describe the 
semicircle D K E ; move the dividers to Q the width of the lip re- 
quired, and describe the semicircle K P J, which will be the lip 
sought. 



The Circle and its Sections. 

1. The Areas of Circles are to each other as the squares of their 
diameters ; any circle twice the diameter of another contains four 
times the area of the other. 

2. The Radius of a circle is a straight line drawn from the cen- 
tre to the circumference. 

3. The Diameter of a circle is a straight line drawn through th« 
centre, and terminated both ways at the circumference. 

4. A Chord is a straight line joining aiiy two points of the cir- 
cumference. 

5. An Arc is any part of the circumference. 

6. A Semicircle is half the circumference cut off by a diameter. 

7. A Segment is any portion of a circle cut off by a chord. 

8. A Sector is a part of a circle cut off by two radii. 



FLARING VESSEL 



15 



To describe a Flaring Vessel Pattern, a Set of Patterns 
for a Pyramid Cake, or an Envelope for a Cone. 

Fig. 15. 




Prom a point C as a centre, describe a circle A B equal to the 
large circumference ; with the point F as a centre, the depth of 
the vessel, describe a circle D E equal to the small circumference ; 
then draw the lines G H and E, S tangent to the circles A B and 
DE; from the point of intersection as a centre, describe the 
arcs A C B and D F E ; then A D E B will be the size of the vessel, 
and three such pieces will be an envelope for it, and AJBTFU 
the altitude : then by dividing the sector SOH into sections A B, 
D E, P Q, and W X, you will have a set of patterns for a pyramid 



16 TO DESCRIBE A CONE OR FRUSTUM. 

cake ; and the sector A B will be one-third of an envelope for 
a cone. 

In allowing for locks, you must draw the lines parallel to the 
radii, as represented in the diagram by dotted lines, which will 
bring the vessel true across the top and bottom. 



To describe a Cone or Frustum. 

Fig. 16. 



First draw a side elevation of the desired vessel, D E, then from 
A as a centre describe the arcs CDC and GEG; after finding the 
diameter of the top or large end, turn to the table of Diameters 
and Circumferences, where you will find the true circumference, 
which you will proceed to lay out on the upper or larger arc CDC, 
making due allowance for the locks, wire, and burr. This is for 
one piece ; if for two pieces, you will lay out only one-half the 
circumference on the plate ; if for three pieces, one-third ; if for 
four pieces, one-fourth ; and so on for any number, remembering 
to make the allowance for locks, wire, and burr on the piece you 
use for a pattern. 



TO DESCRIBE A HEART — CYCLOID. 17 

To describe a Heart. 
Fig. 17. 




Draw an indefinite line A B ; then span the dividers one-fourth 
the width you wish the heart, and describe two semicircumferences 
A C and C B ; span the dividers from A to B, the width of the heart, 
and describe the lines A D and B D, which completes the description, 




Cycloid, a curve much used in mechanics. It is thus formed : 
If the circumference of a circle be rolled on a right line, begin- 
ning at any point A, and continued till the same point A arrives at 
the line again, making just one revolution, and thereby measuring 



18 TO STRIKE SIDE OF FLARING VESSEL. 

out a straight line ABA equal to the circumference of a circle, 
while the point A in the circumference traces out a curve line 
A C A G A : then this curve is called a cycloid ; and some of its 
properties are contained in the following lemma. 

If the generating or revolving circle be placed in the middle of 
the cycloid, its diameter coinoiding with the axis A B, and from 
any point there be drawn the tangent C F, the ordinate C D E per- 
pendicular to the axis, and the chord of the circle A D ; then the 
chief properties are these : 

The right line C D equal to the circular arc A D ; 

The cycloidal arc A C equal to double the chord A D ; 

The semi-cycloid A C A equal to double the diameter A B, and 

The tangent C F is parallel to the chord A D. 
This curve is the line of swiftest descent, and that best suited 
for the path of the ball of a pendulum. 



To Strike the Side of a Flaring Vessel. 

Fig. 19. 




To find the radius of a circle for striking the side of a flaring 
vessel having the diameters and depth of side given. 

Rule. — As the difference between the large and small diameter 
is to the depth of the side, so is the small diameter to the radius 
of the circle by which it is struck. 

Example. — Suppose A B C D to be the desired vessel, with a top 
diameter of 12 inches, bottom diameter 9 inches, depth of side 8 
inches. Then as 12 — 9 = 3 : 8 : : 9 to the radius. 
8 X 9 = 72 r 3 = 24 inches, answer. 



TO DESCRIBE BREASTS FOR CANS. 19 

To describe Bevel Covers for Vessels, or Breasts for 
Cans. 

Fig. 20, 




Construct a right angle ADB, and from the point C, the altitude 
height you wish the breast, erect a perpendicular line F ; then on 
the line B, mark the point E one-half the diameter of the can; 
and on the line F, mark the point G one-half the diameter of the 
opening in the top of breast; draw a line N to pass through the 
points E and G produced until it intersects the line A ; place one 
foot of the dividers at the point of intersection H, and place the 
other on the point E, and describe the circle E I K ; span the divi- 
ders from the point H to point G, and describe the circle GLM; 
then span the dividers from the point D to E, and step them six 
times on the circle E I K, which gives the size of the breast. Re- 
member to mark the lines for the locks parallel with the radii. 



20 TO FIND THE CENTRE OF A CIRCLE. 

To Find the Centre of a Circle from a Part of the Cir- 
cumference. 

Fig. 21. 




Span the dividers any distance you wish, and place one foot on 
the circumference A B, and describe the semicircumferences C D, 
E F, G H, and I K, and through the points of their intersection P Q 
and R S, draw two indefinite lines L M and N ; the point of their 
intersection T, will be the centre desired. * 



THE FRUSTUM OF A CONE, 



21 



Sector, for Obtaining Angles. 

Fig. 22. 




Sector, a portion of a circle comprehended between any two 
radii and their intercepted arcs. — Similar Sectors are those whose 
radii include equal angles. 

To find the area of a sector. Say as 360° is to the degree, etc., 
in the arc of the sector, so is the area of the whole circle to the 
area of the sector. Or multiply the radius by the length of the 
arc, and half the product will be the area. 



To Construct the Frustum of a Cone. 

Form of flat Plate by which to construct any Frustum of a Cone. 
Fig. 23. 




Let ABCD represent the required frustum ; continue the lines 
AD and B C until they meet at E ; then from E as centre, with the 
radius E C, describe the arc C H ; also from E, with the radius E B, 
describe the arc B I ; make B I equal in length to twice A G B ; 
draw the line E I, and B C I H is the form of the plate as required. 






22 



STRIKING OUT A CONE 



Rule for Striking Out a Cone or Frustum. 

Fig. 24, 
C 




In a conical surface, there may be economy, sometimes, in 
having the slant height 6 times the radius of base. For a Circle 
may be wholly cut into conical surfaces, if the angle is 60°, 30°, 
15°, etc. 

But there is a greater simplicity in cutting it, when the angle 
is 60°. For instance, take A C equal to the slant height, describe 
an indefinite arc AO; with the same opening of the dividers 
measure from A to B ; draw B C and we have the required sector. 
This would make the angle C equal 60°. This angle may be 
divided into two or four equal parts, and we should thus have 
sectors whose angle would be 30° or 15°, which would not make 
the vessel very flaring. The accompanying figure gives about the 
shape of the flaring vessel when the angle of the sector is 30°. 

Fig. 25. 




To find the Contents of a Pyramid or Cone. 

Rule. — Multiply the area of the base by the height, and one- 
third of the product will be the solid content. 

Example. — Required the solid content in inches of a Cone or 
Pyramid, the diameter of the base being 8 inches, and perpendic- 
ular height 18 inches? 
8 X 8 = 64 X '7854 X 18= 9047808 -=- 3= 301-5936 inches -f 231 = 1 gall. 1\£ qts. 



CONTENTS OF FRUSTUM OF A CONE 



23 



Hipped Roofs, Mill Hoppers, etc. 

To find the various Angles and proper Dimensions of Materials whereby 
to construct any figure whose form is the Frustum of a proper or 
■ inverted Pyramid, as Hipped Roofs, Mill Hoppers, etc. 

Fig. 26. 
D C 





\tm 




dA/V 




//* 


4 



Let ABCD be the given dimensions of plan for a roof, the 
height R T also being given ; draw the diagonal A R, meeting the 
top or ridge R s on plan ; from R, at right angles with A R and 
equal to the required height, draw the line R T, then T A, equal 
the length of the struts or corners of the roof; from A, with the 
distance A T, describe an arc T I, continue the diagonal A R until 
it cuts the arc T Z, through which, and parallel with the ridge R s, 
draw the line m n, which determines the required breadth for each 
side of the roof: from A, meeting the line m n, draw the line A o, 
or proper angle for the end of each board by which the roof might 
require to be covered ; and the angle at T is what the boards re- 
quire to be made in the direction of their thickness, when the cor- 
ners or angles require to be mitred. 



Contents in Gallons of the Frustum of a Cone. 

Figs. 27, 28, 29. 




To find the Contents in Gallons of a Vessel, whose diameter is 
larger at one end than the other, such as a Bowl, Pail, Firkin, 
Tub, Coffee-pot, etc. 



24 



CONTENTS OF SQUARE VESSELS. 



Rule. — Multiply the larger diameter by the smaller, and to the 
product add one-third of the square of their difference, multiply 
by the height, and multiply that product by -0034 for Wine Gallons, 
and by -002785 for Beer. 

Example. — Required the contents of a Coffee-pot 6 inches diam- 
eter at the top, 9 inches at the bottom, and 18 inches high. 



Large diameter 9 
Small do. 6 

54 

£ of the square 3 

57 
Height 18 

456 
57 



Brought up 1026 
•0034 

4104 
3078 



3-4884 wine gallons, 
or nearly 3£ gallons. 



Carried up 1026 

1026 multiplied by -002785 equal 2-8574 Beer Gallons. 



Rule to find the Contents in Gallons of any Square 
Vessel. 

Rule. — Take the dimensions in inches and decimal parts of an 
inch, multiply the length, breadth, and height together, and then 
multiply the product by -004329 for Wine Gallons, and by -003546 
for Ale Gallons. 

Example. — How many Wine Gallons will a box contain that is 
10 feet long, 5 feet wide, and 4 feet deep ? 



Length in inches, 
Breadth in do. 


120 
60 

7200 
48 


Bron 
or 1496 


ght up 345600 
•004329 


Height in inches, 


3110400 
691200 
1036800 




57600 
28800 


1382400 




1496-102400 gallons, 
galls, and 3£ gills. 


Carried up, 


345600 



CONTENTS OF CYLINDRICAL VESSELS. 25 

Contents in Gallons of Cylindrical Vessels. 

Rule. — Take the dimensions, in inches and decimal parts of an 
inch. Square the diameter, multiply it by the length in inches, 
and then multiply the product by -0034 for Wine Gallons, or by 
•002785 for Ale Gallons. 

Example.— How many U. S. Gallons will a Cylindrical Vessel 
contain, whose diameter is 9 inches, and length 9^ inches ? 
Diameter, 9 Brought up 769-5 

9 -0034 



Square Diam. 81 
Length, 9-5 


30780 

23085 


405 
729- 


2-61630 
or 2 gallons and 5 pints 


Carried up, 769-5 





To Ascertain the Weights of Pipes of various Metals, 
and any Diameter required. 



Thickness in 








parts of an 
inch. 


Wrought iron. 


Copper. 


Lead. 


A 


•326 


Ill lbs. plate -38 


2 lbs. lead -483 


1 


•653 


231 « -76 


4 " -967 


3_ 


•976 


35 " 1-14 


51 « 1-45 


1 


1-3 


461 « 1-52 


8 " 1-933 


3 5 2 


1-627 


58 " 1.9 


9^ " 2-417 


T6 


1 95 


70 " 2-28 


11 " 2-9 




2-277 


801 « 2-66 


13 " 3-383 


1 
¥ 


2-6 


93 " 3-04 


15 " 3.867 



Rule. — To the interior diameter of the pipe, in inches, add the 
thickness of the metal ; multiply the sum by the decimal numbers 
opposite the required thickness and under the metal's name ; also 
by the length of the pipe in feet, and the product is the weight of 
the pipe in lbs. 

1. Required the weight of a copper pipe whose interior diam- 
eter is 1\ inches, its length 6J feet, and the metal ^ of an inch in 

til i O KT1PSS 

' 7-5 X '125 = 7-625 X 1-52 X 6-25 = 72-4 lbs. 

2. What is the weight of a leaden pipe 18J feet in length, 3 
inches interior diameter, and the metal \ of an inch in thickness? 

3 + -25 = 3-25 X 3-867 X 18-5 = 232-5 lbs. 



26 



TIN PLATES. 



Tin Plates. 



Size, Length, Breadth, and Weight. 



Brand Mark. 


No. of 
Sheets 
in Box. 


Length and 
Breadth. 


Weight per 
Box. 








Inches. 


Cwl 


. qr. lbs. 




1 C 


225 


14 by 10 


1 







1 X 


225 


14 by 10 


1 


1 




1 XX 


225 


14 by 10 


1 


1 21 




1 XXX 


225 


14 by 10 


1 


2 14 




1 xxxx 


225 


14 by 10 


1 


3 7 




1 xxxxx 


225 


14 by 10 


2 







1 xxxxxx 


225 


14 by 10 


2 


21 




DC 


100 


17 by 12£ 





3 14 


S £ o*2 


Dx 


100 


17 by 12$ 


1 


14 


.ss^a 


D xx 


100 


17 by 12* 


1 


1 7 


CO O gj 


D xxx 
D xxxx 


100 

100 


17 by 12} 
17 by 12J 


1 
1 


2 

2 21 


J3 ""' CQ 


D xxxxx 


100 


17 by I2i 


1 


3 14 


.r-5 ^ V 1-i 

U e3 A o3 


D xxxxxx 


100 


17 by 12* 


2 


7 


at va 
speci 
ttle : 
hich 


S DC 


200 


15 by 11 


1 


1 27 


a 


S Dx 


200 


15 by 11 


1 


2 20 


bO h * & 


S Dxx 


200 


15 by 11 


1 


3 13 




S D xxx 


200 


15 by 11 


2 


6 


o <g '-3 fl jg 


S D xxxx 


200 


15 by 11 


2 


27 


Sl!J5.S 


S D xxxxx 


200 


15 by 11 


2 


1 20 


2 g^-5 ■ 
- .5 £ § S 


S D xxxxxx 


200 


15 by 11 


2 


2 13 








about 


a g'-S'S 

H- 1 OS 3 fn fafl 


TTT Taggers, 


225 


14 by 10 


1 





h » O j, 

d 3 fth 


1 C 


225 


12 by 12 


- 






1 X 


225 


12 by 12 








1 XX 


225 


12 by 12 








1 xxx 


225 


12 by 12 






"] About the same 


1 xxxx 


225 


12 by 12 






weight per Box, as 
j- the plates above 








. 




1C 


112 


14 by 20 






| of similar brand, 


lx 


112 


14 by 20 






J 14 by 10. 


1 XX 


112 


14 by 20 








1 xxx 


112 


14 by 20 








1 xxxx 


112 


14 by 20 


. 






Leaded or \ 1 C 
Ternes J lx 


112 
112 


14 by 20 
14 by 20 


1 

1 




1 


1 For Roofing. 



WEIGHT OF WATER 



27 



Oil Canisters, (from 2% to 125 galls.,) -with the Quantity and 
Quality of Tin Required for Custom Work. 



Galls. 


Quantity and Quality. 


Galls. 


Quantity and Quality. 


2* 


2 Plates, I X in body. 


33 


13 J Plates, IX in body, 3 


H 


2 " SDX « 




breadths high. 


5* 


2 " DX " 


45 


I3£ Plates, SDXinbody. 


8 


4 " IX » 


60 


13 j- " DX " 


10 


3£ " DX " 


90 


15£ " DX "* 


15 


4 " DX " 


125 


20 " D X " 



The bottom tier of plates to be placed lengthwise. 



Weight of Water. 

1 cubic inch is equal to -03617 pounds. 

12 cubic inches is equal to -434 pounds. 

1 cubic foot is equal to 62*5 pounds. 

1 cubic foot is equal to 7-50 U. S. gallons. 

1-8 cubic feet is equal to 112-00 pounds. 

35-84 cubic feet is equal to 2240-00 pounds. 

1 Cylindrical inch is equal to -02842 pounds. 

12 Cylindrical inches... is equal to -341 pounds. 

1 Cylindrical foot is equal to 49-10 pounds. 

1 Cylindrical foot is equal to 6-00 U. S. gallons. 

2-282 Cylindrical feet is equal to 112-00 pounds. 

45-64 Cylindrical feet is equal to 2240-00 pounds. 

11-2 Imperial gallons is equal to 112-00 pounds. 

224 Imperial gallons is equal to 2240-00 pounds. 

13-44 United States galls, is equal to 112-00 pounds. 
268-8 United States galls, is equal to 2240-00 pounds. 
Centre of pressure is at two-thirds depth from surface. 



Decimal Equivalents to the Fractional Parts of a Gallon, 
or an Inch. 

[The Inch, or Gallon, being divided into 32 parts.] 
[In multiplying decimals it is usual to drop all but the first two or three figures.] 



Deci- 


Gallon, 


■A 


•A 


1 


Deci- 


Gallon, 


d, 


CO 


A 


Deci- 


Gallon, 


A 


A 


j8 


mals. 


Inch. 


1 


I 


1 


mals. 


or 
Inch. 


2 

12 


3 




mals. 


or 
Inch. 


23 


a 
51 


3 


•03125 


1-32 


•375 


3-8 


•71875 


23-32 


n 


•0625 


1-16 


2 


4 


4 


•40625 


13-32 


13 


U 


ift 


•75 


3-4 


24 


6 


3 


•09375 


3-32 


3 


i 


*l 


•4375 


7-16 


14 


3i 


ii 


•78125 


25-32 


25 


<5i 


3i 


•125 


1-8 


4 


l 


^ 


•46875 


15-32 


15 


34 


n 


•8125 


13-16 


26 


Gi 


3} 


•15625 


5-32 





H 


£ 


•5 


1-2 


16 


4 


2 


•84375 


27-32 


27 


6J 


3J 


•1875 


3-16 


6 


U 


f i 


•53125 


17-32 


17 


41 


2k 


•875 


7-8 


28 


7 


u 


•21875 


7-32 


7 


n 


X 


•5625 


9-16 


18 


44 


21 


•906251 29-32 


29 7i 


H 


•25 


1-4 


8 


2 


1 


•59375 


19-32 


19 


41 


21 


•9375 15-16 


30 


n 


m 


•28125 


9-32 


9 


2 j. 


14 


•625 


5-8 


20 


o 


2^ 


•96875 31-32 


31 


n 


fW 


•3125 


5-16 


10 


2-h 


H 


•65625 


21-32 


21 


X 


2ft 


1-000 


1 


32 


8 


4 


•34375 


11-32 


11 


21 


if 


•6875 


11-16 


22 


5i 


21 













28 DIAMETERS, ETC., OF CIECLES. 

Application. — Required the gallons in any Cylindrical Vessel. 
Suppose a vessel 9£ inches deep, 9 inches diameter, and con- 
tents 2-61G3, that is, 2 gallons and 61 hundredth parts of a gallon ; 
now to ascertain this decimal of a gallon, refer to the above Table 
for the decimal that is nearest, which is -625, opposite to which is 
fths of a gallon, or 20 gills, or 5 pints, or 2£ quarts, consequently 
the vessel contains 2 gallons and 5 pints. 

Inches. — To find what part of an inch the decimal -708 is. 
Refer to the above Table for the decimal that is nearest, which is 
•71875, opposite to which is 23-32, or nearly f ths of an inch. 



A TABLE CONTAINING THE DIAMETERS, CIRCUM- 
FERENCES, AND AREAS OF CIRCLES, AND 
THE CONTENT OF EACH IN GALLONS 
AT ONE FOOT IN DEPTH. 



UTILITY OF THE TABLE. 



EXAMPLES. 

1. Required the circumference of a circle, the diameter being 
five inches? 

In the column of circumferences, opposite the given diameter, 
stands 15-708* inches, the circumference required. 

2. Required the capacity, in gallons, of a can, the diameter 
being 6 feet and depth 10 feet? 

In the fourth column from the given diameter stands 211*4472,* 
being the content of a can 6 feet in diameter and 1 foot in depth, 
which being multiplied by 10 gives the required content, two 
thousand one hundred fourteen and a half gallons. 

3. Any of the areas in feet multiplied, by -03704, the product 
equal the number of cubic yards at 1 foot in depth. 

4. The area of a circle in inches multiplied by the length or 
thickness in inches, and by -263, the product equal the weight in 
pounds of cast iron. 

* See preceding cage for Decimal Equivalents to the Fractional parts of a 
Gallon and an Inch. 



29 



Diameters and Circumferences of Circles, and the Con- 
tent in Gallons at 1 Foot in Depth. 

[Area in Inches. .] 



Diam. 


Circ. in. 


Area in. 


Gallons. 


J Diam. 


Circ. in. 


Area in. 


Gallons. 


1 in. 


3-1416 


•7854 


•04084 


6* 


20-420 


33-183 


1-72552 


1 


3-5343 


•9940 


•05169 


I 


20-813 


34-471 


1-79249 


i 


3-9270 


1-2271 


•06380 


f 


21-205 


35-784 


1-86077 


1 


4-3197 


1-4848 


•07717 


7 
8" 


21-598 


37-122 


1-93034 


h 


4-7124 


1-7671 


•09188 


7 in. 


21-991 


38-484 


2-00117 


1 


5-1051 


2-0739 


•10784 


i 


22-383 


39-871 


2-07329 


t 

"8" 


5-4978 


2-4052 


•12506 


I 


22-776 


41-282 


2-14666 


5-8905 


2-7611 


•14357 


3 


23.169 


42-718 


2-22134 


2 in. 


6-2832 


3-1416 


•16333 


% 


23-562 


44-178 


2-29726 


i 


6-6759 


3-5465 


•18439 


| 


23-954 


45-663 


2-37448 


I 


7-0686 


3-9760 


•20675 


3. 

4 


24-347 


47-173 


2-45299 


f 


7-4613 


4-4302 


■23036 


7 
3 


24-740 


48-707 


2-53276 


i 


7-8540 


4-9087 


•25522 


8 in. 


25-132 


50-265 


2-61378 


1 


8-2467 


5-4119 


•28142 


i 


25-515 


51-848 


2-69609 


8-6394 


5-9395 


•30883 


1 


25-918 


53-456 


2-77971 


1 


9-0321 


6-4918 


•33753 


1 


26-310 


55-088 


2-86458 


3 in. 


9-4248 


7-0686 


•36754 


\ 


26-703 


56-745 


2-95074 


i 


9-8175 


7-6699 


•39879 


I 


27-096 


58-426 


3-03815 


i 


10-210 


8-2957 


•43134 


2. 

4 


27-489 


60-132 


3-12686 


3 
"8 


10-602 


8-9462 


•46519 


7 
"g" 


27-881 


61-862 


3-21682 


1 
5" 


10-995 


9-6211 


•50029 


9 in. 


28-274 


63-617 


3-30808 


I 


11-388 


10-320 


•53664 


i 


28-667 


65-396 


3-40059 


5. 
4 


11-781 


11-044 


•57429 


i 


29-059 


67-200 


3-49440 


1 


12-173 


11-793 


•61324 


| 


29-452 


69-029 


3-58951 


4 in. 


12-566 


12-566 


•65343 


\ 


29-845 


70-882 


3-68586 


* 


12-959 


13-364 


•69493 


| 


30-237 


72-759 


3-78347 


* 


13-351 


14-186 


•73767 


f 


30-630 


74-662 


3-88242 


I 


13-744 


15-033 


•78172 


f 


31-023 


76-588 


3-98258 


J 


14-137 


15-904 


•82701 


10 in. 


31-416 


78-540 


4-08408 


1 


14-529 


16-800 


•87360 


\ 


31-808 


80-515 


4-18678 


f 


14-922 


17-720 


•92144 


\ 


32-201 


82-516 


4-28083 


1 


15-315 


18-665 


•97058 


3 

g 


32-594 


84-540 


4-39608 


5 in. 


15-708 


19-635 


1-02102 


\ 


32-986 


86-590 


4-50268 


* 


16-100 


20-629 


1.07271 


| 


33-379 


88-664 


461053 


£ 


16-493 


21-647 


1-12564 


3 

4 


33-772 


90-762 


4-71962 


3 

"5 


16-886 


22-690 


1-17988 


7 
"g" 


34-164 


92-885 


4-82846 


J 


17-278 


23-758 


1-23542 


11 in. 


34-557 


95-033 


4-94172 


f 


17-671 


24-850 


1-29220 


\ 


34-950 


97-205 


5-05466 


I 


18-064 


25-967 


1-35028 


\ 


35-343 


99-402 


5-16890 


1 


18-457 


27-108 


1-40962 


3 

8 


35-735 


101-623 


5-28439 


6 in. 


18-849 


28-274 


1-47025 


i 


36-128 


103-869 


5-40119 


i 


19-242 


29-464 


1-53213 


| 


36.521 


106-139 


5-51923 


i 

4 


19-635 


30-679 


1-59531 


3 

4 


36-913 


108-434 


5-63857 


3 

8 


20-027 


31-919 


1-65979 


1 


37-306 


110-753 


5-75916 



30 



DIAMETERS, ETC., OF CIRCLES 



Diameters and Circumferences of Circles, and the Con- 
tent in Gallons at 1 Foot in Depth. — [Continued.) 
[Area in Feet.~\ 



Diam. 


Ci 


re. 


Area in ft. 


Gallons. 


Diam. 


Circ. 


Area in ft. 


Gallons. ' 


Ft. In. 


Ft. 


In. 




1 ft. depth. 


Ft. 


In. 


Ft. 


In. 




1 ft. depth. 






3 


n 


•7854 


5-8735 


4 


6 


14 


If 


15-9043 


118-9386 




1 


3 


H 


•9217 


6-8928 


4 


7 


14 


H 


16-4986 


123-3830 




2 


3 


8 


1-0690 


7-9944 


4 


8 


14 


71 


17-1041 


127-9112 




3 


3 


11 


1-2271 


9-1766 


4 


9 


14 


11 


17-7205 


132-5209 




4 


4 


2* 


1-3962 


10-4413 


4 


10 


15 


21 


18-3476 


137-2105 




5 


4 


H 


1-5761 


11-7866 


4 


11 


15 


5* 


18-9858 


142-0582 




6 


4 


8* 


1-7671 


13-2150 
















7 


4 


n| 


1-9689 


14-7241 


5 




15 


81 


19-6350 


146-8384 




8 


5 


2| 


2-1816 


16-3148 


5 


1 


15 


H| 


20-2947 


151-7718 




9 


5 


H 


2-4052 


17-9870 


5 


2 


16 


2| 


20-9656 


156-7891 




10 


5 


9 


2-6398 


19-7414 


5 


3 


16 


5| 


21-6475 


161-8886 




11 


6 


21 


2-8852 


21-4830 


5 


4 


16 


9 


22-3400 


167-0674 














5 


5 


17 


01 


23-0437 


172-3300 


2 




6 


3f 


3-1416 


23-4940 


5 


6 


17 


H 


23-7583 


177-6740 


2 


1 


6 


6J 


3-4087 


25-4916 


5 


7 


17 


H 


24-4835 


183-0973 


2 


2 


6 


9f 


3-6869 


27-5720 


5 


8 


17 


n 


25-2199 


188-6045 


2 


3 


7 


Of 


3-9760 


29-7340 


5 


9 


18 


Of 


25-9672 


194-1930 


2 


4 


7 


31 


4-2760 


32-6976 


5 


10 


18 


31 


26-7251 


199-8610 


2 


5 


7 


7 


4-5869 


34-3027 


5 


11 


18 


71 


27-4943 


205-6133 


2 


6 


7 


10i 


4-9087 


36-7092 














2 


7 


8 


If 


5-2413 


39-1964 


6 




18 


101 


28.2744 


211-4472 


2 


8 


8 


4* 


5-5850 


41-7668 


6 


3 


19 


71 


30-6796 


229-4342 


2 


9 


8 


7| 


5-9395 


44-4179 


6 


6 


20 


41 


33-1831 


248-1564 


2 


10 


8 


lOf 


6-3049 


47-1505 


6 


9 


21 


2| 


35-7847 


267-6122 


2 


11 


9 


1 7 


6-6813 


49-9654 


7 




21 


HI 


38-4846 


287-8032 


3 




9 


5 


7-0686 


52-8618 


7 


3 


22 


91 


41-2825 


308-7270 


3 


1 


9 


8i 


7-4666 


55-8382 


7 


6 


23 


6| 


44-1787 


330-3859 


3 


2 


9 


HI 


7-8757 


58-8976 


7 


9 


24 


41 


47-1730 


352-7665 


3 


3 


10 


2J 


8-2957 


62-0386 














3 


4 


10 


5| 


8-7265 


65-2602 


8 




25 


11 


50-2656 


375-9062 


3 


5 


10 


8| 


9-1683 


68-5193 


8 


3 


25 


11 


53-4562 


399-7668 


3 


6 


10 


Hi 


9-6211 


73-1504 


8 


6 


26 


8| 


56-7451 


424-3625 


3 


7 


11 


3 


10-0846 


75-4166 


8 


9 


27 


5| 


60-1321 


449-2118 


o 


8 


11 


H 


10-5591 


78-9652 














3 


9 


11 


n 


11-0446 


82-5959 


9 




28 


31 


63-6174 


475-7563 


3 


10 


12 


H 


11-5409 


86-3074 


9 


3 


29 


Of 


67-2007 


502-5536 


3 


11 


12 


n 


12-0481 


90-1004 


9 


6 


29 


101 


70-8823 


530-0861 














9 


9 


30 


71 


74-6620 


558-3522 


4 




12 


6f 


12-5664 


93-9754 














4 


1 


12 


91 


13-0952 


97-9310 














4 


2 


13 


1 


13-6353 


101-9701 


10 




31 


5 


78-5400 


587-3534 


4 


3 


13 


41 


14-1862 


103-0300 


10 


3 


32 


2 f 


82-5160 


617-0876 


4 


4 


13 


n 


14-7479 


110-2907 


10 


6 


32 


llf 


86-5903 


647-5568 


4 


5 


13 


10^ 


15-3206 


114-5735 


10 


9 


33 


9i 


90-7627 


678-2797 



DIAMETERS, ETC., OF CIRCLES 



31 



Diain. 


Circ. 


Area in ft- 


Gallons. 


Diam. 


Circ. 


Area in ft. 


Gallons. 


Ft. In. 


Ft. 


In. 




1 ft. depth. 


Ft. In. 


Ft. 


In. 




1 ft. depth. 


11 


34 


6| 


95-0334 


710-6977 


21 


65 


HI 


346-3614 


2590-2290 


11 3 


35 


4* 


99-4021 


743-3686 


21 3 


66 


9 


354-6571 


2652-2532 


11 6 


36 


1* 


103-8691 


776-7746 


21 6 


67 


6£ 


363-0511 


2715-0413 


11 9 


36 


101 


108-4342 


810-9143 


21 9 


68 


31 


371-5432 


2778-5486 


12 


37 


8f 


113-0976 


848-1890 


22 


69 


11 


380 1336 


2842-7910 


12 3 


38 


5| 


117-8590 


881-3966 


22 3 


69 


lOf 


388-8220 


2907-7664 


12 6 


39 


H 


122-7187 


917-7395 


22 6 


70 


8i 


397-6087 


2973-4889 


12 9 


40 


Of 


127-6765 


954-8159 


22 9 


71 


5f 


406-4935 


3039-9209 


13 


40 


10 


132-7326 


992-6274 


23 


72 


3 


415-4766 


3107-1001 


13 3 


41 


n 


137-8867 


1031-1719 


23 3 


73 


o* 


424-5577 


3175-0122 


13 6 


42 


41 


143-1391 


1070-4514 


23 6 


73 


91 


433-7371 


3243-6595 


13 9 


43 


2| 


148-4896 


1108-0645 


23 9 


74 


n 


443.0146 


3313-0403 


14 


43 


llf 


153-9384 


1151-2129 


24 


75 


4| 


452-3904 


3383.1563 


14 3 


44 


n 


159-4852 


1192-6940 


24 3 


76 


2^ 


461-8642 


3454-0051 


14 6 


45 


n 


165-1303 


1234-9104 


24 6 


76 


Hf 


471-4363 


3525-5929 


14 9 


46 


4 


170-8735 


1277-8615 


24 9 


77 


9 


481-1065 


3597.9068 


15 


47 


1* 


176-7150 


1321-5454 


25 


78 


6f 


490-8750 


3670-9596 


15 3 


47 


101 


182-6545 


1365-9634 


25 3 


79 


31 


500-7415 


3744-7452 


15 6 


48 


8J 


188-6923 


1407-5165 


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80 


H 


510-7063 


3819-2657 


15 9 


49 


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194-8282 


1457.0032 


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80 


10f 


520-7692 


3894-5203 


16 


50 


H 


201-0624 


1503-6250 


26 


81 


81 


530-9304 


3970-5098 


16 3 


51 


o* 


207-3946 


1550-9797 


26 3 


82 


51 


541-1896 


4047-2322 


16 6 


51 


10 


213-8251 


1599-0696 


26 6 


83 


3 


551-5471 


4124-6898 


16 9 


52 


7| 


220-3537 


1647-8930 


26 9 


84 


of 


562-0027 


4202-9610 


17 


53 


41 


226-9806 


1697-4516 


27 


84 


91 


572-5566 


4281-8072 


17 3 


54 


21 


233-7055 


1747-7431 


27 3 


85 


81 


583-2085 


4361-4664 


17 6 


54 


n| 


240-5287 


1798-7698 


27 6 


86 


4f 


593-9587 


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17 9 


55 


91 


247-4500 


1850-5301 


27 9 


87 


21 


604-8070 


4522-9886 


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615-7536 


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4 


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9 


626-7982 


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671-9587 


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61 


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298-6483 


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92 


81 


683-4943 


5111-4487 


19 9 


62 


0£ 


306-3550 


2291-0452 


29 9 


93 


H 


695-1280 


5198-4451 


20 


62 


Q7 

^8 


314-1600 


2349-4141 


30 


94 


21 


706-8600 


5286-1818 


20 3 


63 


"g 


322-0630 


2408-5159 


30 3 


95 


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718-6900 


5374-6512 


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64 


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330-0643 


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95 


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5463-8558 


20 9 


65 


2} 


338-1637 


2528-9233 


30 9 


96 


u 


742-6447 


5553-7940 



32 



CAPACITY OF CANS IN GALLONS 



Capacity of Cans One Inch Deep. 

UTILITY OF THE TABLE. 

Required the contents of a vessel, diameter 6 7-10ths inches, depth 10 inches? 

By the table a vessel 1 inch deep and 6 and 7-10ths inches diameter contains 
•15 (hundredths) of a gallon, then -15 X 10= 1*50 or 1 gallon and 2 quarts. 

Required the contents of a can, diameter 19 8-lQths inches, depth 30 inches? 

By the table a vessel 1 inch deep and 19 and 8-10ths inches diameter contains 
1 gallon and -33 (hundredths), then 1*33 X 30 = 39*90 or nearly 40 gallons. 

Required the depth of a can whose diameter is 12 and 2-10ths inches, to con- 
tain 16 gallons. 

By the table a vessel 1 inch deep and 12 and 2-10ths inches diameter contains 

•50 (hundredths) of a gallon, then 16 4-"50 = 32 inches, the depth required, viz. : 

•50 ) 16 ( 32 X -50 = 16 gallons. 



10 

11 

12 
13 
14 
15 

16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
126 
27 
28 
1 29 
30 
31 
32 
33 
34 
35 
36 
37 
38 
39 
40 



•03 

•05 

•08 

•12 

•16 

•21 

•27 

•34 

•41 

•48 

•57 

'66 

•76 

•87 

•98 

1-101 

1-227 

1-360 

1-499 

1-645 

1-798 

1-958 

2-125 

2-298 

2-478 

2-665 

2-859 

3-060 

3-267 

3-481 

3-702 

3-930 

4-165 

4-406 

4-654 

4-909 

5-171 

5-440 



•03 
•05 
•08 
•12 
•17 
•22 
•28 
•34 
•41 
•49 
•58 
■67 
•77 



1-113 
1-240 
1-373 
1-513 
1-660 
1-814 
1-974 
2-142 
2-316 
2-496 
2-684 
2-879 
3-080 
3-288 
3-503 
3-725 
3-953 
4-188 
4-430 
4-679 
4-935 
5-197 
5-467 



•03 

•05 

•08 

•12 

•17 

•22 

•28 

•35 

•42 

•50 

•59 

•68 

•78 

•89 

1-005 

1-125 

1-253 

1-385 

1-527 

1-675 

1-830 

1-991 

2-159 

2-333 

2-515 

2-703 

2-898 

3-100 

3-309 

3-524 

3-747 

3-976 

4-212 

4-455 

4-704 

4-961 

5-224 

5-491 



A 



•03 

•05 

•09 

•13 

•18 

•23 

•29 

•36 

•43 

•51 

•60 

•69 

•79 

•90 

1-017 

1.138 

1-266 

1-400 

1-542 

1-696 

1-815 

2-007 

2-176 

2-351 

2-533 

2-722 

2-918 

3-121 

3-330 

3-543 

3-773 

4-003 

4-236 

4-483 

4-730 

4-987 

5-250 

5-521 



t\ 



•03 

•06 

•09 

•13 

•18 

•23 

•30 

•36 

•44 

•52 

•60 

•70 

•80 

•91 

1-028 

1-150 

1-279 

1-414 

1-556 

1-705 

1-861 

2-023 

2-193 

2-369 

2-552 

2-741 

2-938 

3-141 

3-351 

3-568 

3-795 

4-022 

4-260 

4-503 

4-755 

5-012 

5-277 

5-548 



•04 

•06 

•10 

•14 

•19 

•24 

•30 

•37 

•44 

•53 

•61 

•71 

•81 

•92 

1-040 

1-162 

1-292 

1-428 

1-570 

1-720 

1-876 

2-040 

2-210 

2-386 

2-570 

2-764 

2-958 

3-162 

3-372 

3-590 

3-814 

4-046 

4-284 

4-528 

4-780 

5-038 

5-304 

5-576 



TO 



•04 

•07 

•10 

•14 

•19 

•25 

•31 

•38 

•45 

•53 

•62 

•72 

•82 

•93 

1-051 

1-170 

1-304 

1-441 

1-585 

1-735 

1-892 

2-056 

2-227 

2-404 

2-588 

2-780 

2-977 

3-182 

3-393 

3-612 

3-837 

4-070 

4-307 

4-553 

4*805 

5-064 

5-330 

5-603 



xV 



•04 

•07 

•11 

•15 

•20 

•25 

•31 

•38 

•46 

•54 

•63 

•73 

•83 

•94 

1-063 

1-187 

1-317 

1-455 

1-600 

1-750 

1-908 

2-072 

2-244 

2-422 

2-607 

2-800 

2-997 

3-202 

3-414 

3-633 

3-860 

4-092 

4-331 

4-577 

4-834 

5-090 

5-357 

5-630 



ttt 


9 

To 


•04 


•05 


•07 


•08 


•11 


•11 


•15 


•16 


•20 


•21 


•26 


•26 


•32 


•33 


•39 


•40 


•47 


•48 


•55 


•56 


•64 


•65 


•74 


•75 


•84 


•85 


•95 


•97 


1-075 


1-086 


1-200 


1-211 


1-330 


1-343 


1-478 


1-482 


1-612 


1-630 


1-770 


1-780 


1-923 


1-940 


2-096 


2-105 


2-261 


2-280 


2-440 


2-460 


2-625 


2-643 


2-820 


2-836 


3-017 


3-036 


3-223 


3-245 


3-436 


3-457 


3-655 


3-689 


3-882 


3-904 


4-115 


4-140 


4-355 


4-380 


4-602 


4-626 


4-855 


4-880 


5-120 


5-142 


5-383 


5-410 


5-657 


5-684 



DEFINITION OF ARITHMETICAL SIGNS. 33 

Definition of Arithmetical Signs used in the "Work. 

= When we wish to state that one quantity or number is equal 
to another quantity or number, the sign of equality — is employed. 
Thus 3 added to 2 = 5, or 3 added to 2 is equal to 5. 

-4- When the sum of two quantities or numbers is to be taken, 
the sign plus -f- is placed between them. Thus 3 -j- 2 = 5, that is, 
the sum of 3 and 2 is 5. This is the sign of Addition. 

— When the difference of two numbers or quantities is to be 
taken, the sign minus — is used, and shows that the latter number 
or quantity is to be taken from the former. Thus 5 — 2 = 3. 
This is the sign of Subtraction. 

X When the product of any two numbers or quantities is to be 
taken, the sign into X is placed between them. Thus 3x2 = 6. 
This is the sign of Multiplication. 

-f- When we are to take the quotient of two quantities, the sign 
by -7- is placed between them, and shows that the former is to be 
divided by the latter. Thus 6-7-2 = 3. This is the sign of 
Division. But in some cases in this work, the mode of division 
has been to place the dividend above a horizontal line, and the 
divisor below it, in the form of a vulgar fraction, thus : 

Dividend _ 6 

- . . =- Quotient. - = 6. 

Divisor 2 

When the square of any number or quantity is to be taken, this 
is denoted by placing a small figure 2 above it to the right. Thus 
6 2 shows that the square of 6 is to be taken, and therefore 6 2 = 6 
X 6 = 36. 

When we wish to show that the square root of any number or 
quantity is to be taken, this is denoted by placing the radical sign 
j/ before it. Thus -j/36 shows that the square root of 36 ought 
to be taken, hence -j/36 = 6. 

The common marks of proportion are also used, viz., : : : : as 
3 : 6 : : 4 : 8, being read 3 is to 6 as 4 is to 8. 

The application of these signs to the expression of rules is ex- 
ceedingly simple. Thus, connected with the circle we have the 
following rules : 

1st. The circumference of a circle will be found by multiplying 
the diameter by 34416. 

2d. The diameter of a circle may be found by dividing the cir- 
cumference by 3-1416. 

3d. The area of a circle may be found by multiplying the half 
of the diameter by the half of the circumference, or by multiply- 
ing together the diameter and circumference, and dividing the 
product by 4, or by squaring the diameter, and multiplying by 
•7854. 



34 



PRACTICAL GEOMETRY 



Now all these rules may be thus expressed: 
1st. diameter X 3-1416 = circumference, 

circumference 



2d. 



3d. 



3-1416 



diameter. 



diameter circumference 
X 5 



2 
diameter 



circumference 



or, 



diameter 2 X "7854 = area. 



PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 

PRACTICAL Geometry is an important branch of knowledge 
to all who are in any way engaged in the art of building. 
The workman, as well as the designer, requires its aid ; and unless 
he is acquainted with some of the leading principles of the 
science, he will frequently feel an uncertainty as to the results 
he may deduce from the problems which are presented to his 
notice. 

Problem I. 

To inscribe an Equilateral Triangle within a given Circle. 

Let a b c be a circle ; it is required to draw within it a triangle 
whose sides are equal to one another. Commencing from any 




point a. mark on the circumference of the circle a series of spaces 
equal to the radius of the circle, of which there will be six, and 
draw the arcs a d d b, etc. Then join every alternate point as 
a b, b c, o a, and the several lines will together form sen equi- 
lateral triangle. 



PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 



35 



Problem II. 

Within a given Circle to inscribe a Square. 

Let a b c d be the given circle, it is required to draw a square 
within it. Draw the diameters a b, c d, at right angles tu each 




other; or, in other words, draw the diameter a b, and form a per- 
pendicular bisecting it. Then join the points a c, c b, b u, n a, 
and the figure a b c d is a square formed within a given circle. 

Problem III. 

Within a given Circle to inscribe a regular Pentagon ; that is, a. 
Polygon of five Sides. 

Let a b c d be a circle in which it is required to draw a pentagon. 
Draw a diameter a d, and perpendicular to it another diameter. 

Fig. 32. 




Then divide o b into two equal parts in the point, e, and join c e ; 
and with e as a centre, and the radius c e, draw the arc c f, cut- 
ting a o in f; and, with c as a centre, and the same radius, de- 
scribe the arc f g ; the arcs c f, g f intersect each other in the 
point f, and the arc g f intersects the circumference of the circle 
in the point g. Join the points c and g, and that line will be a 
side of the pentagon to be drawn. Mark oif within the circum- 
ference the same space, and join the points A h, h i, i k, k c, and 
the figure that is formed is a pentagon. 



36 



PRACTICAL GEOMETRY, 



Problem IV. 

Within a given Circle to describe a regular Hexagon; that is to 
say, a Polygon of six equal Sides. 

Let a b c be the given circle, and o the centre. With the radius 
of the circle divide it into parts, of which there will be six, and 

Fig. 33. 



/l\ 



V> 



connect the points a d, d b, etc., and the figure a d b e c f will 
be a regular hexagon. 

Problem V. 

To cut off the Corners of a given Square, so as to form a regular 
Octagon. 

Let a b c d be the given square. Draw the two diagonal lines 
a c, and b d, crossing each other in o. Then, with the radius a o, 
that is, half the diagonal, and with a as a centre, describe the 
arc e f, cutting the sides of the square in e and f ; then, from b 




as a centre, describe the arc g h ; and in like manner from c and 
d describe the arcs I k and l m. Draw the lines l g, f i, h m, and 
K e, and these, with the parts of the given square G f, i h, m k, 
and e l, form the octagon required. 



Problem VI. 

To divide a given Line into any Number of Parts, which Parts 
shall be in the same Proportion to each other as the Parts of some 
other given Juine, whether those Parts are eqtial or unequal. 

Let a b be the given line which it is required to divide in the 
same manner and proportion as the line c d, whether the parts are 



PEACTICAL GEOMETRY. 37 

equal or unequal. On the base line c d, form an equilateral tri- 
angle in the manner already described in a former problem. Then 
take the distance a b, and with e as a centre, describe the arc f g, 
and join the points f and g, and f g shall be equal to A b. Now, 




if from the points hie, which are the divisions of the line c, we 
draw lines to e, as h e, i e, and k e, these lines will cut f g in the 
points abc, which will divide the line f g into parts proportionate 
to the divisions of the line c d. 

Problem VII. 

On a given Line to draw a Polygon of any Number of Sides, so 
that that Line shall be one side of a Polygon; or, in other words, 
to find the Centre of a Circle which shall circumscribe any Poly- 
gon, the Length of the Side of the Polygon being given. 

We shall here show, in a tabular form, the length of the radius 
of a circle, which shall contain the given line, as a side of the 
required polygon; and here we will suppose the line to be divided 
into one thousand equal parts, and the radius into a certain 
number of like parts. The radius of the circle for different 
figures will be as follows: 

Tor an inscribed Triangle 577 

Square 701 

Pentagon 850 

Hexagon 1000 

Heptagon 1152 

Octagon 1306J 

Enneagon 14(52 

Decagon 1618 

Endecagon 1775 

Dodecagon 1932 

By this table the workman may, with a simple proportion, find 
the radius of a circle which shall contain a polygon, one side being 
given : thus, if it be required to draw a pentagon, the side given 
being fifteen inches, we may say as 1000 is to 15, so is 850, the 
tabular number for a pentagon, to 12 inches and seventy-five hun- 



38 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 

dredth parts of an inch, or seven-tenths and a half of a tenth of 
an inch. 

We may here give another table for the construction of polygons, 
one in which the radius of the circumscribing circle is given. If 
it be required to find the side of the inscribed polygon, the radius 
being one thousand parts, the sides of the different polygons will 
be according to the following scale: 

The Triangle 1732 

Square 1414 

Pentagon 1175 

Hexagon 1000 

Heptagon 867 J 

Octagon 765 

Enneagon 684 

Decagon 618 

Endecagon 563£ 

Dodeclfon 517£ 

Here, as in the case already mentioned, the law of proportion 
applies, and the statement may be thus made: as one thousand is 
to the number of inches contained in the radius of the given cir- 
cle, so is the tabular number for the required polygon to the length 
of one of its sides in inches. Thus, let it be supposed that we have 
a circle whose radius in inches is 30, and that we wish to inscribe 
an octagon within it; then say as 1000 is to 30 inches, so is 765 
to 22 inches and 95-100 parts of an inch, the length of the side of 
the required octagon. 

Method of Drawing Curved Lines. 

We will now introduce a few remarks upon the method of draw- 
ing curved lines, and also give some rules for finding the forms of 
mouldings when they are to mitre together, that is to say, of 
raking mouldings, and of bevel work in general. It will also be 
necessary to mnke a few remarks upon the form of ribs for domes 
and groins, a knowledge of which is so necessary to the builder 
that without it the workman cannot correctly execute his task. 
It is hardly necessary to state, that all these mechanical operations 
are founded upon geometrical principles ; and, unless he is ac- 
quainted with these, the workman cannot hope to succeed in his 
attempt to excel in his art, — one which is necessary for the com- 
fort and convenience of all communities. 



Problem VIII. 

To draw an Ellipse with the Rule and Compasses, the transverse and 
conjugate Diameters being given; that is, the length and width. 

Let a b be the transverse or longest diameter ; c d the conjugate 
or shortest diameter ; and o the point of their intersection, that 



PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 



39 



is, the centre of the ellipse. Take the distance o c or o d ; and, 
taking a as one point, mark that distance a e upon the line a o. 
Divide o e into three equal parts, and take from a f, a distance 
e f, equal to one of those parts. Make o g equal to o f. With 
the radius f g, and f and g as centres, strike arcs which shall in- 
tersect each other in the points i and h. Then draw the lines h 

Fig. 36. 




f k, h g m, and i f l, i g n. With f as a centre, and the radius 
a f, describe the arc l a k ; and, from g as a centre, with the same 
radius, describe the arc m b n. With the radius h c, and h as a 
centre, describe the arc k c m; and, from the point i, with the 
radius I d, describe the arc l d m. The figure a c b d is an ellipse, 
formed of four arcs of circles. 



Problem IX. 

To draw an Ellipse by means of two Concentric Circles. 




Let a b be the transverse, and e f the conjugate diameter, and 
o the centre of an ellipse to be drawn. From o with the radius 



40 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 

A, describe the circle A c b d, and from the same centre describe 
another circle g e h f. Divide the outer circle into any number 
of equal parts ; the greater the number, the more exact will be the 
ellipse : and they should not be less than twelve. From each of 
these divisions draw lines to the centre o, as a o, b o, c o. Then, 
from a, b, c, etc., draw lines perpendicular to a b, and from the 
corresponding points in the inner circle, that is, from the points 
marked 1,2, 3, etc., draw lines parallel to a b. Draw a curve 
through the points where these lines intersect each other, and it 
will be an ellipse. 

In the diagram to which this demonstration refers, only one 
quarter of the ellipse is lettered, but the process described in re- 
lation to that must be carried round the circles, as is shown in the 
dotted and other lines. 

Problem X. 

To describe an Ellipse by Means of a Carpenter's Square, or apiece 
of notched Lath. 

Having drawn two lines to represent the diameters of the ellipse 
required, fasten the square so that the internal angle or meeting 
of the blade and stock shall be at the centre of the ellipse. Then 
take a piece of wood or a lath, and cut it to the length of half the 
longest diameter, and from one end cut out a piece equal to half 
the shortest diameter, and there will then be a piece remaining 
at one end equal to the difference of the half of the two diameters. 
Place this projecting piece of the lath in such a manner that it 
may rest against the square, on the edge which corresponds to the 
two diameters ; then, turning it round horizontally, the two ends 
of the projection will slide along the two internal edges of the 
square, and if a pencil be fixed at the other end of the lath, it will 
describe one quarter of an ellipse. The square must then be 
moved for the successive quarters of the ellipse, and the whole 
figure will thus be easily formed. 

This method of forming an ellipse is a good substitute for the 
usual plan, and the figure thus produced is more accurate than 
that made by passing a pencil round a string moving upon two 
pins or nails fixed in the foci, for the string is apt to stretch, and 
the pencil cannot be guided with the accuracy required. 

There are many other methods of drawing ellipses, or more 
properly ovals, but we can only notice two of those in common 
use. 

1. By ordinates, or lines drawn perpendicular to the axis. 
Having formed the two diameters, divide the axis, or larger diam- 
eter, into any number of equal parts, and erect lines perpendic- 
ular to the several points. Next draw a semicircle, and divide its 
diameter into the like number of equal parts ; that is, if the larger 
diameter or axis of the intended ellipse be divided into twenty 
equal parts, then the semicircle must be divided into the like num- 
ber. As the diameter of the semicircle is equal to the shorter 



PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 



41 



diameter of the ellipse, or conjugate axis, perpendiculars may be 
raised from these divisions of the diameter, or the semicircle, till 
they meet the circumference ; and the different perpendiculars, 
which are called ordinates, may be erected like perpendiculars, 
on the axis of ellipse. Joining the several points together, the 
ellipse is described ; and the more accurately the perpendiculars 
are formed, the more exact will be the ellipse. 

2. By intersecting arches. Take any point in the axis, and with 
a radius equal to the distance of that point from one extremity of 
the axis, and with one of the foci as a centre, describe an arc ; then 
with the distance of the assumed point in the axis from the other 
end of it, and with the other focus as a centre, describe another 
arc intersecting the former, and the point of intersection will be a 
point in the ellipse. By assuming any number of points in the 
axis, any number of points on the curve may be found, and these 
united will give the ellipse. This process is founded on the prop- 
erty of the ellipse ; that if any two lines are drawn from the foci 
to any point in the curve, the length of these lines added together 
will be a constant quantity, that is, always the same in the same 
ellipse. 

Problem XI. 

To find the Centre and the two Axes of an Ellipse. 

Let a b c d be an ellipse, it is required to find its centre. Draw 
any two lines, as e f and a h, parallel and equal to each other. 

Fig. 38. 




Bisect these lines as in the points i and k, and bisect I k as in l. 
From l, as a centre, draw a circle cutting the ellipse in four points, 
1, 2, 3, 4. Now l is the centre of the ellipse. But join the points 
1, 3, and 2, 4; and bisect these lines as in m and n. Draw the 
line m n, and produce it to a and b, and it will be the transverse 
axis. Draw c d through l, and perpendicular to a b, and it will 
be the conjugate or shorter axis. 



42 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 

Problem XII. 

To draw a flat Arch by the intersection of Idnes, having the Open- 
ing and Spring or Rise given. 

Let a d b be the opening, and c d its spring or rise. In the 
middle of a b, at d, erect a perpendicular d e, equal to twice c d, 
its rise ; and from e draw e a and e b, and divide a e and b e into 




any number or equal parts, as a, b, c, and 1, 2, 3. Join b a, 3 c, 
2 b, and 1 a, and it will form the arch required. 

The more parts a e and b e are divided into, the greater will be 
the accuracy of the curve. 

Many curves may be made in the same manner, according to 
the position of the lines a e and e b; and if instead of two lines 
drawn from a and b, meeting in e, a perpendicular be erected at 
the same points, and two lines be then drawn from the ends of 
these perpendiculars meeting in an angle, and these lines be 
divided into any number of equal parts, the points of the adjacent 
lines may be joined, and a curve will be formed resembling a 
Gothic arch. The demonstration already given is therefore very 
useful to the workman, as he may vary the form of the curve by 
altering the position of the lines, either with respect to the angles 
which they make with each other, or their proportional lengths. 



Problem XIII. 

re of a 
l ly with 

Fig. 40. 



To find the Form or Curvature of a Raking Moulding that shall 
unite correctly with a Level one. 




Let a b c d be part of the level moulding, which we will here 
suppose to be an ovolo, or quarter round ; a and c, the points 
where the raking moulding takes its rise on the angle ; fcg, the 
angle the raking moulding makes with the horizontal one. Draw 



PRACTICAL GEOMETRY, 



43 



c v at the given angle, and from a draw a e parallel to it; con- 
tinue b a to h, and from c make c h perpendicular to a h. Divide 
c h into any number of equal parts, as 1, 2, 3, and draw lines 
parallel to h a, as 1 a, 2 b, 8 c ; and then in any part of the raking 
moulding, as i, draw i k perpendicular to e a, and divide i k into 
the same number of equal parts h c is divided into ; and draw 1 a, 
2 b, 3 c, parallel to e a. Tlien transfer the distances 1 a, 2 b, 3 c, 
and a curve drawn through these points will be the form of the 
curve required for the raking moulding. 

We have here shown the method to be employed for an ovolo ; 
but it is just the same for any other formed moulding, as a cavetto, 
semirecta, etc. It may be worthy remark, that, after the moulding 
is worked, and the mitre is cut in the mitre-box for the level 
moulding, the raking moulding must be cut, either by the means 
of a wedge formed to the required angle of the rake, or a box 
made to correspond to that angle : and if this be accurately done, 
the mitre will be true, and the moulding in all its members cor- 
respond to the level moulding. The plane in which the raking 
moulding is situated is square to that of the level one. This is 
always the case in a pediment, the mouldings of which correspond 
with the return. 

Problem XIV. 

To find the Form or Curvature of the Return in an open or broken 
Pediment. 

Let a b c be the angle which the pediment makes with the cor- 
nice, and let the form and size of the moulding be as in the last 
problem, and as shown at d a b h. From i> drop a perpendicular 

Fig. 41. 




on c b, and draw n e perpendicular to d c, or parallel to c b ; and 
let d e be equal to e i (Fig. 40). Then from e draw e f parallel 
to d a, and divide e f into the same number of parts as i k (Fig. 
40), at 1 a, 2 b, 3 c, and transfer the distances 1 a, 2 b, 3 c, as in 
Fig. 40. Then a curve line drawn through the points a, b, c, will 
be the form of the return for the moulding of the open pediment. 
The mitre for the return is cut in the usual manner, but that 
of the pediment is cut to the proper angle of its inclination, as in 
the last problem. In fixing the mitre, the portion e d g of the 
return must be cut away to make it come flush with the top of the 
pediment moulding. . 



44 EPITOME OF iifENSFEATION, 



EPITOME OF MENSURATION. 

Of the Circle, Cylinder, Sphere, etc. 

1. The circle contains a greater area than any other plane figure 
bounded by an equal perimeter or outline. 

2. The areas of circles are to each other as the squares of their 
diameters. 

3. The diameter of a circle being 1, its circumference equals 
3-1416. 

4. The diameter of a circle is equal to -31831 of its circumference. 

5. The square of the diameter of a circle being 1, its area equals 
•7854. 

6. The square root of the area of a circle, multiplied by 1-12837, 
equals its diameter. 

7. The diameter of a circle multiplied by -8862, or the circum- 
ference multiplied by -2821, equals the side of a square of equal 
area. 

8. The sum of the squares of half the chord and versed sine 
divided by the versed sine, the quotient equals the diameter of 
corresponding circle. 

9. The chord of the whole arc of a circle taken from eight times 
the chord of half the arc, one-third of the remainder equals the 
length of the arc ; or, 

10. The number of degrees contained in the arc of a circle, mul- 
tiplied by the diameter of the circle and by -008727, the product 
equals the length of the arc in equal terms of unity. 

11. The length of the arc of a sector of a circle multiplied by its 
radius, equals twice the area of the sector. 

12. The area of the segment of a circle equals the area of the 
sector, minus the area of a triangle whose vertex is the centre, 
and whose base equals the chord of the segment; or, 

13. The area of a segment may be obtained by dividing the height 
of the segment by the diameter of the circle, and multiplying the 
corresponding tabular area by the square of the diameter. 

14. The sum of the diameters of two concentric circles multiplied 
by their difference and by -7854, equals the area of the ring or 
space contained between them. 

15. The sum of the thickness and internal diameter of a cylindric 
ring, multiplied by the square of its thickness and by 2-4674, 
equals its solidity, 

16. The circumference of a cylinder, multiplied by its length or 
height, equals its convex surface. 

17. The area of the end of a cylinder, multiplied by its length, 
equals its solid contents. 

18. The area of the internal diameter of a cylinder, multiplied 
by its depth, equals its cubical capacity. 



EPITOME OF MENSURATION. 45 

19. The square of the diameter of a cylinder, multiplied by its 
length and divided by any other required length, the square root 
of the quotient equals the diameter of the other cylinder of equal 
contents or capacity. 

20. The square of the diameter of a sphere, multiplied by 3-1416, 
equals its convex surface. 

21. The cube of the diameter of a sphere, multiplied by -5236, 
equals its solid contents. 

22. The height of any spherical segment or zone, multiplied by 
the diameter of the sphere of which it is a part, and by 3-1416, 
equals the area or convex surface of the segment; or, 

23. The height of the segment, multiplied by the circumference 
of the sphere of which it is a part, equals the area. 

24. The solidity of any spherical segment is equal to three times 
the square of the radius of its base, plus the square of its height, 
and multiplied by its height and by -5236. 

25. The solidity of a spherical zone equals the sum of the squares 
of the radii of its two ends, and one-third the square of its height, 
multiplied by the height and by 1-5708. 

26. The capacity of a cylinder, 1 foot in diameter and 1 foot in 
length, equals 5-875 of a United States gallon. 

27. The capacity of a cylinder, 1 inch in diameter and 1 foot in 
length, equals -0108 of a United States gallon. 

28. The capacity of a cylinder, 1 inch in diameter and 1 inch in 
length, equals -0034 of a United States gallon. 

29. The capacity of a sphere, 1 foot in diameter, equals 3-9156 
United States gallons. 

30. The capacity of a sphere, 1 inch in diameter, equals -0021G5 
of a United States gallon; hence, 

31. The capacity of any other cylinder in United States gallons 
is obtained by multiplying the square of its diameter by its length, 
or the capacity of any other sphere by the cube of its diameter, 
and by the number of United States gallons contained as above 
in the unity of its measurement. 



Of the Square, Rectangle, Cube, etc. 

1. The side of a square equals the square root of its area. 

2. The area of a square equals the square of one of its sides. 

3. The diagonal of a square equals the square root of twice the 
square of its side. 

4. The side of a square is equal to the square root of half the 
square of its diagonal. 

5. The side of a square equal to the diagonal of a given square 
contains double the area of a given square. 

6. The area of a rectangle equals its length multiplied by its 
breadth. 

7. The length of a rectangle equals the area divided by the 
breadth ; or, the breadth equals the area divided by the length. 



46 



EPITOME OF MENSURATION 



8. The side or end of a rectangle equals the square root of the 
sum of the diagonal and opposite side to that required, multiplied 
by their difference. 

9. The diagonal in a rectangle equals the square root of the sum 
of the squares of the base and perpendicular. 

10. The solidity of a cube equals the area of one of its sides, 
multiplied by the length or breadth of one of its sides. 

11. The length or breadth of a side of a cube equals the cube 
root of its solidity. 

12. The capacity of a 12-inch cube equals 7*4784 United States 
gallons. 

Surfaces and Solidities of the Regular Bodies, each of 
whose Boundary Lines is 1. 



No. of Sides. 


Names. 


Surfaces. 


Solids. 


4 

6 

8 

12 

20 


Tetrahedron. 

Hexahedron. 

Octahedron. 

Dodecahedron. 

Icosahedron. 


1-7321 
6. 

3-4641 

20-6458 

8-6603 


0-1179 

1. 

0-4714 

7-6631 

2-1817 



The tabular surface multiplied by the square of one of the 
boundary lines equals the surface required; or, 

The tabular solidity multiplied by the cube of one of the 
boundary lines equals the solidity required. 



Of Triangles, Polygons, etc. 



1. The complement of an angle is its defect from a right angle. 

2. The supplement of an angle is its defect from two right 
angles. 

3. The sine, tangent, and secant of an angle are the cosine, 
cotangent, ami cosecant of the complement of that angle. 

4. The hypothenuse of a right-angled triangle beiug made radii, 
its sides become the sines of the opposite angles, or the cosines 
of the adjacent angles. 

5. The three angles of every triangle are equal to two right 
angles ; hence the oblique angles of a right-angled triangle are 
each others complements. 

6. The sum of the squares of the two given sides of a right- 
angled triangle is equal to the square of the hypothenuse. 

7. The difference between the squares of the hypothenuse and 
given side of a right-angled triangle is equal to the square of the 
required side. 



EPITOME OF MENSURATION. 



47 



8. The area of a triangle equals half the product of the base 
multiplied by the perpendicular height ; or, 

9. The area of a triangle equals half the product of the two 
sides and the natural sine of the contained angle. 

10. The side of any regular polygon multiplied by its apothegm 
or perpendicular, and by the number of its sides, equals twice 
the area. 



Table of the Areas of Regular Polygons, each of whose 
Sides is Unity. 



Name of 


No. of 


Apothegm or 
Perpend'lar. 


Area when 


Interior 


Central 


Polygon. 


Sides. 


Side is Unity. 


Angle. 


Angle. 


Triangle 


3 


0-2887 


0-4330 


60° / 


120° 0' 


Square 


4 


0-5 


1- 


90 


90 


Pentagon 


5 


0-6882 


1-7205 


108 


72 


Hexagon 


6 


0-8660 


2-5981 


120 


60 


Heptagon.... 


7 


1-0386 


3-6339 


128 34f 


5125f 


Octagon 


8 


1-2071 


4-8284 


135 


45 


Nonagon 


9 


1-3737 


6-1818 


140 


40 


Decagon 


10 


1-5388 


7-6942 


144 


36 


Undecagon.. 


11 


1-7028 


9-3656 


147 16 T * T 


32 43^ 


Dodecagon... 


12 


1-8660 


11-1962 


150 


30 



The tabular area of the corresponding polygon multiplied by 
the square of the side of the given polygon equals the area of 
the given polygon. 



Of Ellipses, Cones, Frustums, etc. 

1. The square root of half the sum of the squares of the two 
diameters of an ellipse multiplied by 3-1416 equals its circum- 
ference. 

2. The product of the two axes of an ellipse multiplied by -7854 
equals its area. 

3. The curve surface of a cone is equal to half the product of 
the circumference of its base multiplied by its slant side, to 
which, if the area of the base be added, the sum is the whole 
surface. 

4. The solidity of a cone equals one-third of the product of its 
base multiplied by its altitude or height. 

5. The squares of the diameters of the two ends of the frustum 
of a cone added to the product of the two diameters, and that sum 
multiplied by its height and by -2618, equals its solidity. 



48 



UTILITY OF THE SLIDE RULE. 



INSTRUMENTAL ARITHMETIC, 

OR UTILITY OF THE SLIDE RULE. 



3 


477 


4 


602 


5 


699 


6 


778 


7 


845 


8 


903 


9 


954 



The slide rule is an instrument by which the greater portion 
of operations in arithmetic and mensuration may be advanta- 
geously performed, provided the lines of division and gauge-points 
be made properly correct, and their several values familiarly 
understood. 

The lines of division are distinguished by the letters a b c d ; 
A b and c being each divided alike, and containing what is termed 
a double radius, or double series of logarithmic numbers, each 
series being supposed to be divided into 1000 equal part's, and 
distributed along the radius in the following manner : 

From 1 to 2 contains 301 of those parts, being the log. of 2. 



1000 being the whole number. 

The line d on the improved rules consists of only a single 
radius; and although of larger radius, the logarithmic series is 
the same, and disposed of along the line in a similar proportion, 
forming exactly a line of square roots to the numbers on the 
lines b c. 

Numeration. 

Numeration teaches us to estimate or properly value the num- 
bers and divisions on the rule in an arithmetical form. 

Their values are all entirely governed by the value set upon 
the first figure, and being decimally reckoned, advance tenfold 
from the commencement to the termination of each radius : thus, 
suppose 1 at the joint be one, the 1 in the middle of the rule is 
ten, and 1 at the end, one hundred; again, suppose 1 at the joint 
ten, 1 in the middle is 100, and 1 or 10 at the end is 1000, etc., 
the intermediate divisions on which complete the whole system of 
its notation. 






To Multiply Numbers by the Rule. 

Set 1 on b opposite to the multiplier on a ; and against the 
number to be multiplied on b is the product on a. 
Multiply 6 by 4. 
Set 1 on b to 4 on a ; and against 6 on b is 24 on a. 



UTILITY OF THE SLIDE RULE. 49 



The slide thus set, against 7 on 


b is 28 on 


8 


' 32 " 


9 


< 30 " 


10 


« 40 '« 


12 


« 48 " 


15 


' 60 " 


25 


" 100 " 



etc. 
To Divide Numbers upon the Rule. 

Set the divisor on b to 1 on a; and against the number to be 
divided on b is the quotient on a. 
Divide 63 by 3. 

Set 3 on b to 1 on a ; and against 63 on b is 21 on a. 

Proportion, or Rule of Three Direct. 

Rule. — Set the first term on b to the second on a; and against 
the third upon b is the fourth upon a. 

1. If 4 yards of cloth cost 38 cents, what will 30 yards cost at 
the same rate ? 

Set 4 on b to 38 on a ; and against 30 on b is 285 cents on a. 

2. Suppose I pay 31 dollars 50 cents for 3 cwt. of copper, at 
what rate is that per ton ? 1 ton = 20 cwt. 

Set 3 upon b to 31.5 upon a ; and against 20 upon b is 210 upon a. 

Rule of Three Inverse. 

Rule. — Invert the slide, and the operation is the same as direct 
proportion. 

1. I know that six men are capable of performing a certain 
given portion of work in eight days, but I want the same per- 
formed in three ; how many men must there be employed ? 

Set 6 upon c to 8 upon a; and against 3 upon c is 16 upon a. 

2. The lever of a safety-valve is 20 inches in length, and 5 
inches between the fixed end and centre of the valve; what weight 
must there bo placed on the end of the lever to equipoise a force 
or pressure of 40 lbs. tending to raise the valve ? 

Set 5 upon c to 40 upon a; and against 20 upon c is 10 upon a. 

3. If 8f yards of cloth, 1 J yard in width, be a sufficient quantity, 
hew much will be required of that which is only -Jths in width, 
to effect the same purpose ? 

Set 1-5 upon c to 8'75 upon a; and against 8-75 upon c is 15 
yards upon a. 

Square and Cube Roots of Numbers. 

On the engineer's rule, when the lines c and d are equal at both 
ends, c is a table of squares, and d a table of roots, as 

Squares 1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81 on c. 
Roots 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 on d. 



50 UTILITY OF THE SLIDE KULE. 

To find the Geometrical mean Proportion between two 
Numbers. 

Set one of the numbers upon o to the same number upon d; and 
against the other number upon c is the mean number or side of an 
equal square upon d. 

Required the mean proportion between 20 and 45. 

Set 20 upon c to 20 upon d ; and against 45 upon c is 30 upon d. 

To cube any number, set the number upon c to 1 or 10 upon d; 
and against the same number upon d is the cube number upon c. 

Required the cube of 4. 

Set 4 upon c to 1 or 10 upon d ; and against 4 upon d is 64 
upon c. 

To extract the cube root of any number, invert the slide, and 
set the number upon b to 1 or 10 upon d; and where two numbers 
of equal value coincide on the lines b d, is the root of the given 
number. 

Required the cube root of 64. 

Set 64 upon b to 1 or 10 upon d ; and against 4 upon b is 4 upon 
d, or root of the given number. 

On the common rule, when 1 in the middle of the line c is set 
opposite to 10 on d, then c is a table of squares, and d a table of 
roots. 

To cube any number by this rule, set the number upon c to 10 
upon d ; and against the same number upon d is the cube upon c. 

Mensuration of Surface. 

1. Squares, Rectangles, etc. 
Rule. — When the length is given in feet and the breadth in 
inches, set the breadth on b to 12 on a ; and against the length 
on a is the content in square feet on b. 

If the dimensions are all inches, set the breadth on b to 144 
upon a ; and against the length upon a is the number of square 
feet on b. 

Required the content of a board 15 inches broad and 14 feet long. 
Set 15 upon b to 12 upon a; and against 14 upon a is 17*5 
square feet on b. 

2. Circles, Polygons, etc. 
Rule. — Set -7854 upon c to 1 or 10 upon d ; then will the lines 
c and d be a table of areas and diameters. 

Areas 3-14 7-06 12-56 19-63 28-27 38-48 50-26 63-61 upon c. 
Diam. 23456789 upon d. 
In the common rule, set -7854 on c to 10 on d ; then c is a line 
or table of areas, and d of diameters, as before. 

Set 7 upon b to 22 upon a; then b and a form or become a table 
of diameters and circumferences of circles. 

Cir. 3-14 6-28 9-42 12-56 15-7 18-85 22 2513 28-27 upon a. 
Dia. 123 4 66 78 9 upon b. 



UTILITY OF THE SLIDE RULE. 



51 



Polygons from 3 to 12 sides. — Set the gauge-point upon c to 1 or 10 

upon u ; and against the length of one side upon d is the area upon c. 

Sides 3 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12. 

Gauge-points -433 1-7 2-6 3-63 4-82 6-18 7-69 9-37 11-17. 

Required the area of an equilateral triangle, each side 12 inches 

in length. 

Set -433 upon c to 1 upon d ; and against 12 upon d are 62-5 
square inches upon c. 



Table of Gauge-Points for the Engineer's Rule. 


Names. 


F, F, F. 


F, I, I. 


I, I, T. 


F, I. 


i, i. 


F. 


i. 


Cubic inches.. 


578 


83 


1728 


106 


1273 


105 


121 


Cubic feet 


1 


144 


1 


1833 


22 


121 


33 


Imp. gallons.. 


163 


231 


277 


294 


353 


306 


529 


Water in lbs. 


16 


23 


276 


293 


352 


305 


528 


Gold 


814 


1175 


141 


149 


178 


155 


269 


Silver " 


15 


216 


261 


276 


334 


286 


5 


Mercury " 


118 


169 


203 


216 


258 


225 


389 


Brass " 


193 


177 


333 


354 


424 


369 


637 


Copper " 


18 


26 


319 


331 


397 


345 


596 


Lead " 


141 


203 


243 


258 


31 


27 


465 


Wro't iron " 


207 


297 


357 


338 


453 


394 


682 


Cast iron " 


222 


32 


384 


407 


489 


424 


733 


Tin " 


219 


315 


378 


401 


481 


419 


728 


Steel 


202 


292 


352 


372 


448 


385 


671 


Coal " 


127 


183 


22 


33 


28 


242 


42 


Marble " 


591 


85 


102 


116 


13 


113 


195 


Freestone " 


632 


915 


11 


1162 


14 


141 


21 



For the Ccmmon Slide Rule. 



Names. 


F, F, F. 


F, I, I. 


i, i, i. 


F, I. 


i, i. 


F. 


i. 


Cubic inches- 


36 


518 


624 


660 


799 


625 


113 


Cubic feet 


625 


9 


108 


114 


138 


119 


206 


Water in lbs. 


10 


144 


174 


184 


22 


191 


329 


Gold 


507 


735 


88 


96 


118 


939 


180 


Silver " 


938 


136 


157 


173 


208 


173 


354 


Mercury " 


738 


122 


127 


132 


162 


141 


242 


Brass " 


12 


174 


207 


221 


265 


23 


397 


Copper " 


112 


163 


196 


207 


247 


214 


371 


Lead " 


880 


126 


152 


162 


194 


169 


289 


Wro't iron " 


129 


186 


222 


235 


283 


247 


423 


Cast iron " 


139 


2 


241 


254 


304 


265 


458 


Tin " 


137 


135 


235 


25 


300 


261 


454 


Steel 


136 


183 


22 


233 


278 


239 


418 


Coal 


795 


114 


138 


146 


176 


151 


262 


Marble " 


370 


53 


637 


725 


81 


72 


121 


Freestone " 


394 


57 


69 


728 


873 


755 


132 



52 UTILITY OP THE SLIDE EULE. 

Mensuration of Solidity and Capacity. 

General Rule. — Set the length upon b to the gauge-point upon 
a ; and against the side of the square, or diameter on d, are the 
cubic contents, or weight in lbs. on c. 

1. Required the cubic contents of a tree 80 feet in length, and 
10 inches quarter girt. 

Set 30 upon b to 144 (the gauge-point) upon a ; and against 10 
upon d is 20-75 feet upon c. 

2. In a cylinder 9 inches in length, and 7 inches diameter, how 
many cubic inches? 

Set 9 upon b to 1273 (the gauge-point) upon a; and against 7 
on d is 346 inches on c. 

3. What is the weight of a bar of cast iron 3 in. square and 6 
ft. long ? 

Set 6 upon b to 32 (the gauge-point) upon a ; and against 3 
upon d is 168 pounds upon c. 
By the Common Rule. 

4. Required the weight of a cylinder of wrought iron 10 inches 
long and 5J diameter. 

Set 10 upon b to 283 (the gauge-point) upon a ; and against 5£ 
upon r> is 66-65 pounds on c. 

5. What is the weight of a dry rope 25 yards long and 4 inches 
circumference ? 

Set 25 upon b to 47 (the gauge-point) upon a; and against 4 on 
D is 53-16 pounds on c. 

6. What is the weight of a short-linked chain 30 yards in length, 
and T 6 ^ of an inch in diameter ? 

Set 30 upon b to 52 (the gauge-point) upon a; and against 6 
on d is 129-5 pounds on c. 

Power of Steam Engines. 

Condensing Engines. Rule. — Set 3-5 on c to 10 on d; then d is 
a line of diameters for cylinders, and c the corresponding number 
of horses' power; thus, 

H. Pr. 3| 4 5 6 8 10 12 16 20 25 30 40 50 on c. 

C. D. 10 in. 10f 12 13|- 15J 17 18f 21| 24 26f 29£ 33f 37f on d. 

The same is effected on the common rule by setting 5 on c to 12 
on d. 

Non-condensing Engines. Rule. — Set the pressure of steam in 
pounds per square inch on b to 4 upon a; and against the cylin- 
der's diameter on d is the number of horses' power upon c. 

Required the power of an engine, when the cylinder is 20 inches 
diameter and steam 30 pounds per square inch. 

Set 30 on b to 4 on a ; and against 20 on d is 30 horses' power on o. 

The same is effected on the common rule by setting the force of 
the steam on b to 250 on a. 

Of Engine Boilers. 

How many superficial feet are contained in a boiler 23 feet in 
length and 5£ feet in width ? 



STEAM-ENGINE — HORSE POWER. 53 

Set 1 on b to 23 on A; and against 5-5 upon b is 126-5 square 
feet upon a. 

If 5 square feet of boiler surface be sufficient for each horse- 
power, how many horses' power of engine is the boiler equal to? 

Set 5 upon b to 126-5 upon a ; and against 1 upon b is 25-5 
upon a. 

Horse Power. 

As this is the universal term used to express the capability of 
first movers, of magnitude, it is essential that the estimate of it 
should be uniform. 

Its estimate is the elevation of 33,000 pounds avoirdupois one 
foot in keight in one minute, and it is designated as being Nomi- 
nal, Indicated, or Actual. 

The first designation being adopted and referred to by Manu- 
facturers of steam engines in order to express the capacity of an 
engine, the elements thereof being confined to the dimensions of 
the steam cylinder, and a conventional pressure of steam and speed 
of piston ; the second to designate the full capacity of an engine, 
as developed in operation, without any deduction for friction ; and 
the last referring to its actual power as developed by its operation, 
involving the elements of the mean pressure upon the piston, its 
velocity, and a just deduction for the friction of the operation of 
the machine. 

In reviewing the various modes for the computation as submitted 
by Engineers and Manufacturers, there is no proper formula that 
presents the essential element of being in conformity w T ith any 
other, and as conformity in a rule for this purpose, if based upon 
an assimilation to the capacity of an engine, is all that is requisite, 
it would have been preferable to have adopted an existing formula 
to the introduction of a new one, had it been practicable to have 
done so. It occurs, further, that there is not only a want of con- 
formity in the various rules essayed by authors, but they have 
neither reached the cases of both condensing and non-condensing 
engines, nor have they properly approached to the actual power of 
an engine ; and as the practice of operating engines since the adop- 
tion of existing formulae has materially altered, both in an increase 
of pressure and velocity of piston, the following rules are submitted. 

Nominal Horse's Power. 

CONDENSING ENGINE. 
CP V 

= horse's power ; d representing diam. of cylinder in inches^ and 
oOOO 

v the velocity of the piston in feet per minute. 

This is alike to the rule of the British Admiralty, substituting 

3000 for 6000, and it is based upon a uniform steam pressure of 

10 lbs. per square inch (steam gauge, or above the pressure of the 

atmosphere), cut off at one -half the stroke, deducting one-fifth* 

* The friction and losses in a marine engine may be taken at 1-5 to 2 lbs. per 
square inch for working the engine, and 5 to 7}^ per cent, upon the remainder 
for the friction of the load. 



54 



STEAM ENGINE — HORSE POWER, 



for friction and losses, with a mean velocity of piston of 250 feet 
per minute for an engine of long stroke, and of 200 feet for one 
of short stroke. 

The rule of the British Admiralty is based upon a uniform and 
effective pressure of 7 lbs. per square inch at full stroke, and a 
mean velocity of piston of 205 feet per minute: viz., 170 feet foi 
a stroke of 2-5 feet, and 240 feet for a stroke of 8 feet. 

NON-CONDENSING ENGINE. 

d*v 

1000 

This is based upon a uniform steam pressure of 60 lbs. per 
square inch (steam gauge), cut off at one-half the stroke, deduct- 
ing one-sixth for friction and losses, with a mean velocity of pis- 
ton of 250 feet per second. 

Nominal Horse Power of several Non-condensing 

Engines. 

d 2 v 
Computed from Formula ■———== H. P. 



±= horse's power. 



Horses' 
Power. 


Diameter 
and Stroke 
of Cylinder. 


Revo- 
lutions. 


Horses' 
l'ower. 


Diameter 
and Stroke 
of Cylinder. 


Revo- 
lutions. 


Horses' 
Power. 


Diameter 
and Stroke 
of Cylinder. 


Revo- 
lution* 


No. 


Ina. 


Feet. 


Min. 


No. 


Ins. 


Feet. 


Min. 


No. 


Ins. 


Feet. 


Min. 


9- 


6X1' 


125 


46-1 


12X4-5 


32 


159-7 


22X5-5 


30 


9-2 


6 


1-5 


85 


55-3 


14 


3- 


47 


160-7 


22 


6- 


28 


12-2 


7 


1- 


125 


56-3 


14 


3-5 


41 


163-6 


22 


6-5 


26 


12-5 


7 


1-5 


85 


58- 


14 


4- 


37 


169-4 


22 


7- 


25 


16-3 


8 


1-5 


85 


60- 


14 


4-5 


34 


183-7 


24 


5-5 


29 


16-9 


8 


1-75 


75 


60-8 


14 


5- 


30 


193-5 


24 


6- 


28 


21-1 


9 


1-5 


87 


64-8 


15 


3- 


48 


194-7 


24 


6-5 


26 


21-3 


9 


1-75 


75 


66-1 


15 


3-5 


42 


193-5 


24 


7- 


24 


21-4 


9 


2. 


66 


66-6 


15 


4- 


37 


198-7 


24 


7-5 


23 


21-5 


9 


2-5 


53 


66-8 


15 


4-5 


33 


227-1 


26 


6- 


28 


26-1 


10 


1-5 


87 


67-5 


15 


5- 


30 


228-5 


26 


6-5 


26 


26.6 


10 


1-75 


76 


77-1 


16 


3-5 


43 


227-1 


26 


7. 


24 


27-2 


10 


2- 


68 


77-8 


16 


4- 


38 


233-2 


26 


7-5 


23 


27-5 


10 


2-5 


55 


78-3 


16 


4-5 


34 


237-9 


26 


8- 


22 


28-2 


10 


3- 


47 


79-4 


16 


5- 


31 


266- 


28 


6-5 


26 


28-7 


10 


3-5 


41 


81-7 


16 


5-5 


29 


274-4 


28 


7- 


25 


28-8 


10 


4- 


36 


82-9 


16 


6- 


27 


270-5 


28 


7-5 


23 


32-9 


11 


2- 


70 


99-1 


18 


4-5 


34 


275-8 


28 


8- 


22 


33-3 


11 


2-5 


55 


103-7 


18 


5- 


32 


279-9 


28 


8-5 


21 


33.4 


11 


3- 


46 


103-4 


18 


5-5 


29 


304-2 


30 


6-5 


26 


33.9 


11 


3-5 


40 


105- 


18 


6- 


27 


315- 


30 


7- 


25 


34-9 


11 


4. 


36 


128. 


20 


5- 


32 


324- 


30 


7-5 


24 


39-2 


12 


2- 


68 


127.6 


20 


5-5 


29 


331-2 


30 


8- 


23 


39-6 


12 


2-5 


55 


129.6 


20 


6- 


27 


336-6 


30 


8-5 


22 


40-6 


12 


3- 


47 


130- 


20 


6-5 


25 


340-2 


30 


9- 


21 


41-3 


12 


3-5 


41 


134-4 


20 


7- 


24 


359-1 


30 


9-5 


21 


41-5 


12 


4. 


36 


154-9 


22 


5- 


32 


360- 


30 


10- 


20 



J3TEAM. 55 



Indicated Horse Power. 

This is the gross power exerted by an engine, without any de- 
duction for friction, the mean pressure upon the piston being 
determined by an Indicator, or by a computation based upon the 
actual initial pressure in the cylinder. 



Mixture of Air and Steam. 

Water contains a portion of air or other uncondensable gaseous 
matter, and when it is converted into steam, this air is mixed with 
it, and when the steam is condensed it is left in a gaseous state. 
If means were not taken to remove this air or gaseous matter from 
the condenser of a steam-engine, it would fill it and the cylinder, 
and obstruct their operation ; but, notwithstanding the ordinary 
means of removing it (by the air-pump), a certain quantity of it 
always remains in the condenser. 

20 volumes of water absorb 1 volume of air. 



Steam Acting Expansively. 

To Compute tlie mean Pressure of Steam upon, a Piston by Hyper- 
bolic Logarithms. 

Rule. — Divide the length of the stroke of a piston, added to the 
clearance in the cylinder at one end, by the length of the stroke 
at which the steam is cut off, added to the clearance at that end, 
and the quotient will express the relative expansion of the steam 
or number. 

Find in the table the logarithm of the number nearest to that of 
the quotient, to which add 1. The sum is the ratio of the gain. 

Multiply the ratio thus obtained by the pressure of the steam 
(including the atmosphere) as it enters the cylinder, divide the pro- 
duct by the relative expansion, and the quotient will give the mean 
pressure required. 



56 STEAM. 

Table of Hyperbolic Logarithms. 



No. 


Log. 


No. 


Log. 


No. 


Log. 
1-447 


No. 
5-8 


Log. 


No. 
7-4 


Log. 


105 


•049 


2.65 


•975 


4-25 


1-758 


2-001 


1-1 


•095 


2-66 


•978 


4-3 


1-459 


5-85 


1-766 


7-45 


2-008 


1-15 


•14 


2-7 


•993 


4-33 


1-465 


5-9 


1-775 


7-5 


2 015 


1-2 


•182 


2-75 


1012 


4-35 


1-47 


5-95 


1-783 


7-55 


2-022 


1-25 


•223 


2-8 


1-03 


4-4 


1-482 


6- 


1-792 


7-6 


2-028 


1-3 


•262 


2-85 


1-047 


4-45 


1-493 


6-05 


1-8 


7-65 


2-035 


1-33 


•285 


2-9 


1-065 


4-5 


1-504 


6-1 


1-808 


7-66 


2036 


1-35 


•3 


2-95 


1-082 


4-55 


1-515 


6-15 


1-816 


7-7 


2-041 


1-4 


•336 


3- 


1-099 


4-6 


1-526 


6-2 


1-824 


7-75 


2-048 


1-45 


•372 


3-05 


1-115 


4-65 


1-537 


6-25 


1-833 


7-8 


2-054 


1-5 


•405 


3-1 


1-131 


4-66 


1-54 


6-3 


1-841 


7-85 


2 061 


1-55 


•438 


3-15 


1-147 


4-7 


1-548 


6-33 


1-845 


7-9 


2-067 


1-6 


•47 


3-2 


1 163 


4-75 


1-558 


6-35 


1-848 


7-95 


2-073 


1-65 


•5 


3-25 


1-179 


4-8 


1-569 


6-4 


1-856 


8- 


2-079 


1-66 


•506 


3-3 


1-194 


4-85 


1-579 


6-45 


1-864 


8-05 


2-086 


1-7 


•531 


3-33 


1-202 


4-9 


1-589 


6-5 


1-872 


8-1 


2-092 


1-75 


•56 


3-35 


1-209 


4-95 


1-599 


6-55 


1-879 


8-15 


2-098 


1-8 


•588 


3-4 


1-224 


5- 


1-609 


6-6 


1-887 


8-2 


2-104 


1-85 


•612 


3-45 


1-238 


5-05 


1-619 


6-65 


1-895 


8-25 


2-11 


1-9 


•642 


3-5 


1-253 


51 


1-629 


6-66 


1-896 


8-3 


2-116 


1-95 


•668 


3-55 


1-267 


5-15 


1-639 


6-7 


1-902 


8-33 


2119 


2- 


•693 


36 


1-281 


5-2 


1-649 


6-75 


1-91 


8-35 


2-122 


2-05 


•718 


3-65 


1-295 


5-25 


1-658 


6-8 


1-917 


8-4 


2-128 


2-1 


•742 


3-66 


1-297 


5-3 


1-668 


685 


1-924 


8-45 


2-134 


2-15 


•765 


3-7 


1-308 


5-33 


1-673 


6-9 


1-931 


8-5 


2-14 


2-2 


•788 


3-75 


1 -322 


5-35 


1-677 


6-95 


1-939 


8-55 


2-146 


2-25 


•811 


3-8 


1-335 


5-4 


1-686 


7- 


1-946 


8-6 


2-152 


2-3 


•833 


3-85 


1-348 


5-45 


1-6^6 


7-05 


1-953 


8-65 


2-158 


2-33 


•845 


3-9 


1-361 


5-5 


1-705 


71 


1-96 


8-66 


2-159 


2-35 


•854 


3-95 


1-374 


5-55 


1-714 


7-15 


1-967 


8-7 


2-163 


2-4 


•875 


4- 


1-386 


5-6 


1-723 


7-2 


1-974 


8-75 


2-169 


2-45 


•896 


405 


1-399 


5-65 


1-732 


7-25 


1-981 


8-8 


2-175 


2-5 


•916 


4-1 


1-411 


5-66 


1-733 


7-3 


1-988 


8-85 


2-18 


2-55 


•936 


4-15 


1-423 


5-7 


1-74 


7-33 


1-991 


8-9 


2-186 


2-6 


•956 


4-2 


1-435 


5-75 


1-749 


7-35 


1-995 


8-95 


2-192 



Note. — The Hyp. Log. of any number not in the table may be 
found by multiplying a common log. by 2-302585053, usually by 2-3. 

Example. — Assume steam to enter a cylinder at a pressure of 34-7 
lbs. per square inch, and to be cut off at \ the length of the stroke of 
the piston, the stroke being 10 feet ; what will be the mean pressure? 

10 feet -f -5 for clearance = 120-5 ins., stroke 10 ~ 4 -f -5 for 
clearance = 30-5 ins. 

Then 120-5 ■— 30-5 =3-95, the relative expansion. 

Log. of number 3-95 = 1-374, which -f 1 = 2-374. 
2-374X34-7 _ 82-377.° 
3^95 ~~ 3-95 



20-855 lbs. 



STEAM. 



57 



When the Relative Expansion or Number falls between two numbers 
in the Table, proceed as follows: Take the difference between the 
logs, of the two numbers. Then, as the difference between the 
numbers is to the difference between these logs., so is the excess 
of the expansion over the least number, which, added to the least 
log., will give the log. required. 

Illustration. — The expansion is 4-84, the logs, for 4-8 and 
4-85 are 1-569 and 1-579, and their difference -01. Hence, as 4*85 
co 4-8 = -05 : 1-579 go 1-569 = -01 : : 4-84 — 4-8 =-04 : -008, and 
1-569 -J- -008 = 1-577 = the log. required. 



Effect of Expansion with Equal Volumes of Steam. 

The theoretical economy of using steam expansively is as fol- 
lows — a like volume of steam being expended in each case, and 
expanded to fill the increased spaces. 



Point 

of Cutting 

Off. 


Expansion 
Number. 


Mean 
Pressure 
of Steam. 


Gain 
per Cent, 
in Power. 


Point 

of Cutting 

Off. 


Expansion 
N umber. 


Mean 
Pressure 
of Steam. 


Gain 
per Cent, 
in Power. 


•1 


la- 


3-302 


230- 


•5 


2- 


1-693 


69-3 


•125 


s' 


3-079 


208- 


•6 


1-66 


1-507 


50-7 


•166 


6- 


2-791 


179- 


•625 


16 


1-47 


47- 


•2 


5. 


2-609 


161- 


•666 


1-5 


1-405 


40-5 


•25 


4- 


2-386 


■139- 


•7 


1-42 


1-351 


35-1 


•3 


3-33 


2-203 


120- 


•75 


1-33 


1-285 


22-3 


•333 


3- 


2-099 


110- 


•8 


1-25 


1-223 


20-5 


•375 


2.66 


1-978 


97-8 


•875 


1-143 


1-131 


13-1 


•4 


2-5 


1-916 


91-6 


•9 


111 


1-104 


10-4 



In this illustration, no deductions are made for a reduction of the 
temperature of the steam while expanding or for loss by back 
pressure. 

The same relative advantage follows in expansion as above given, 
whatever may be the initial pressure of the steam. 

Gain in Fuel, and Initial Pressure of Steam required, 
■when acting Expansively, compared -with Non-Ex- 
pansion or Full Stroke. 



Point of 

Cutting 

Off. 


Gain in 
Fuel. 


Initial Pressure 
Required. 


Point of 

Cutting 

Off. 


Gain in 
Fuel. 


Initial Pressure 
Required. 


Cutting 
Off. 


Full 
Stroke. 

Lbs. 
1- 
1- 

1- 
1- 


Cutting 
Off. 


Full 
Stroke. 


Stroke. 
f 

4 
f 


Per Cent. 
11-7 
22-4 
32- 
41- 


Lbs. 
1-01 
1-03 
1-09 
1-18 


Stroke. 

3 

8 

I 


Per Cent. 
49-6 
58-2 
67-6 


Lbs. 
1-32 
1-67 
2-6 


Lbs. 
1- 
1- 
1- 



58 



STEAM ENGINE — SLIDE-VALVES. 



The Relative Effect of Steam during Expansion is obtained from 
the preceding rule. 

The Mechanical Effect of Steam in a cylinder is the product of 
the mean pressure in lbs., and the distance through which it has 
passed in feet. 

The Pressure at the End of a Stroke, or at any Given Point of the 
Stroke, is obtained by dividing the initial pressure by the portion 
of the stroke performed when the steam is cut off. 

Slide- Valves. 

All Dimensions in Inches. 

To Comptite how much Lap must be given on the Steam Side of a, 
Slide- Valve to cut off the Steam at any given Part of the Stroke 
of the Piston. 

Rule. — From the length of stroke of piston subtract the length 
of the stroke that is to be made before the steam is cut off; divide 
the remainder by the stroke of the piston, and extract the square 
root of the quotient. Multiply this root by half the throw of the 
valve, from the product subtract half the lead, and the remainder 
will give the lap required. 

Example. — Having stroke of piston 60 inches, stroke of valve 
16 inches, lap upon exhaust side ^ inch = g 1 ^ of valve stroke, lap 
upon steam side 3J inches, lead 2 inches, steam to be cut off at 
| the stroke ; what is the lap ? 

60 — | of 60 = 10- i? = -166. t/ -166 = 408. -408x^ = 3-264, 

2 
and 3-264 — - = 2-264 inches or the lap — half the lead. 

To Compute the Lap required on the Steam Side of a Valve, to cut 
the Steam off at various Portions of the Stroke of the Piston. 

Valve without Lead. 



Lap in parts of] 
the stroke....! 



Distance of the piston from the end of its stroke when 
steam is cut off, in parts of the length of its stroke. 


the 


h 


5 


l 
3 


A 


l 


5 


* 


1 

8 


A 

•144 


A 


•354 


•323 


•286 


•27 


•25 


•228 


•204 


•177 


•102 



Illustration. — Take the elements of the preceding case. 

Under £ is -204, and -204 X 16 = 3 ' 264 inches la P- 

When the Valve is to have Lead. — Subtract half the pro- 
posed lead from the lap ascertained by the table, and the remainder 
will be the proper lap to give to the valve. 

If, therefore, as in the last case, the valve was to have 2 inches 
lead, then 2 -r 2 — 3-264 = 2-264 inches. 



STEAM ENGINE — SLIDE-VALVES. 



59 



Portion of the Stroke of a Piston at which the Exhaust- 
ing Port is closed and opened. 

Lap on the Exhaust Side of the Valve in Parts of its throw. 





Portion of Stroke at which the Steam is cut off. 


Lap. 


l 

3 


A 


I 


-h 


\ 


1 


■h 


A ' 


A 


















i 

8 

1 

T6 

•T2 


•178 


•161 


•143 


•126 


•109 


•093 


•074 


•053 


•13 


•118 


•1 


•085 


071 


•058 


•043 


•027 


•113 


•101 


•085 


•069 


•053 


•043 


•033 


•024 





•092 


•082 


•067 


•055 


041 


•033 


•022 


•011 


B 

l 


•033 


•026 


•019 


•012 


•008 


•004 


•001 


•001 


7 


•06 


•052 


•04 


•03 


•022 


•015 


•008 


•002 


•073 


•066 


•051 


•042 


•033 


•023 


•013 


•004 





•092 


•082 


•067 


•055 


•044 


•033 


•022 


•011 



The units in the columns of the table marked A express the 
distance of the piston, in parts of its stroke, from the end of the 
stroke when the exhaust, port in advance of it is closed ; and those 
in the columns of the table marked B express the distance of the 
piston, in parts of its stroke, from the end of its stroke when the 
exhaust port behind it is opened. 

Illustration. — A slide-valve is to cut off at \ from the end of 
the stroke of the piston, the lap on the exhaust side is -^ of the 
stroke of the valve (16 inches), and the stroke of the piston is 60 
inches. At what point of the stroke of the piston will the exhaust 
port in advance of it be closed, and the one behind it opened? 

Under £ in table A, opposite to J^ is *°' 53 > which x 60, the 
length of the stroke = 3T8 inches; and under | in table B, oppo- 
site to S2-, is -033, which x 60 = 1-98 inches. 

If the lap on the exhaust side of this valve was increased, the 
effect would be to cause the port in advance of the valve to be 
closed sooner, and the port behind it opened later. And if the 
lap on the exhaust side was removed entirely, the port in advance 
of the piston would be shut, and the one behind it open, at the 
same time. 

The lap on the steam side should always be greater than that 
on the exhaust side, and the difference greater the higher the 
velocity of the piston. 

In fast-running engines alike to locomotives, it is necessary to 
open the exhaust valve before the end of the stroke of the piston, 
in order to give more time for the escape of the steam. 

To Ascertain the Breadth of the Ports. 

Half the throw of the valve should be at least equal to the lap 
on the steam side, added to the breadth of the port. If thia 



60 



STEAM ENGINE — SLIDE-VALVES, 



breadth does not give the required area of port, the throw of th6 
valve must be increased until the required area is attained. 

To Compute the Stroke of a Slide- Valve. 

Rule. — To twice the lap add twice the width of a steam port in 
inches, and the sum will give the stroke required. 

Expansion by lap, with a slide-valve operated by an eccentric 
alone, cannot be extended beyond £ of the stroke of a piston 
without interfering with the efficient operation of the valve ; with 
a link motion, however, this distortion of the valve is somewhat 
compensated. When the lap is increased, the throw of the eccen- 
tric should also be increased. 

When low expansion is required, a cut-off valve should be re- 
sorted to in addition to the main valve. 

To Compute the JLap and Lead of Locomotive Valves. 

•32 t = lap in inches, and -07 t = lead in inches ; I representing the 
stroke of the valve. 

Giffard's Injector. 

Maximum Temperature of the Feed- water Admissible at different Pres- 
sures of Steam. 





Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Pressure per square inch- 


10 


20 


30 


40 


50 


100 


Temperature of feed 


148° 


138° 


130° 


124° 


120° 


110° 



The capacities of injectors are denoted by the diameters of their 
throats in millimetres; thus No. 4 has a diameter of 4 millimetres 
= 4 X "0 394 = " 15 "6 inches. 

The expenditure of steam increases with the proportionate 
pressure in the boiler. 

Raising the Safety-Valve of a Boiler will lessen the pres- 
sure by allowing the steam to escape from the boiler, thus permit- 
ting the water to rise up and come in contact with the over-heated 
iron, and probably cause an explosion. 

The Door and Damper should never be open at the same time, 
unless it is absolutely necessary, as the cold air, that would other- 
wise have to pass through the fire and become rarified, rushes 
through the open door above the fire, and impinges on the tube 
and crown-sheets, and has a tendency to contract the seams and 
cause them to leak. 

Blowing out the Boiler under a high steam pressure, the 
change is so sudden that it has a tendency to contract the iron, and 
cause tht boiler to leak. 



BELTS, 



61 



To heat Rooms, 1 square foot of steam-pipe surface is required 
for 80 cubic feet of space ; 1 cubic foot of boiler is required for 
1500 cubic feet of space. One horse-power boiler is sufficient for 
40,000 cubic feet of space. 



BELTS. 

The resistance of belts to slipping is independent of their breadth, 
consequently there is no advantage derived in increasing this di- 
mension beyond that which is necessary to enable the belt to re- 
sist the strain it is subjected to. 

The ratio of friction to pressure for belts over wood drums, is, 
for leather belts, when worn, -47 ; when new, -5 ; and when over 
turned cast-iron pulleys, -24 and -27. 

A leather belt will safely and continuously resist a strain of 350 
lbs. per square inch of section, and a section of -2 of a square inch 
will transmit the equivalent of a horse's power at a velocity of 
1000 feet per minute over a wooden drum, and *4 of a square inch 
over a turned cast-iron pulley. 

A vulcanized India-rubber belt will sustain a greater stress than 
leather, added to which its resistance to slipping is from 50 to 85 
per cent, greater. 

In high speed belting, the tension, or the breadth of the belt, 
should be increased, in order to prevent the belt from slipping. 
Long belts are more effective than short ones. 

To Compute tlie Stress a Belt or Cord is capable of transmitting. — 

Aide Memoir e. 

Rule. — Multiply the value of C from the following table by the 
stress in pounds. 



Proportion c f Arc 


Value of Coefficieut C 


embraced to the Cir- 
cumference of the 


Leather Belts. 


Cords on Wooden Sheaves. 


Driving Pulley. 


On Wood Drums. 


On Iron Pulleys. 

1-4 
1-7 

2- 
2-4 
2-9 
3-4 


Rough. 


Polished. 


•2 
•3 
•4 

•5 

•6 
•7 


1-8 

2-4 
3-3 
4-4 
5-9 
7-9 


1-9 
2-6 
3-5 
4-8 
6-6 
9- 


1-5 

1-9 
2-3 
2-8 
3-5 
4-2 



C = the ratio of the resistance of a drum or pulley to slipping a belt 
or cord when the resistance of the belt or cord upon the under or slack 
side is known. 

Example. — What is the stress a belt is capable of transmitting 
when the arc embraced upon the surface of the driving and wooden 
drums is *4 of its circumference, and the power or tension of the 
belt is 200 lbs.? 

3-3 X 200 = 660 lbs. 



62 LIMES, CEMENTS, ETC. 

To Compute the Stress which is transmitted to a Belt or Cord. 

Rule. — Divide the power in pounds transmitted to the periphery 
of the pulley by the velocity of the surface of the drum. 

Example. — A cast-iron pulley, 4 feet in diameter, driven by a 
power of four horses, makes 160 revolutions per minute ; what is 
the stress upon the belt? 

33,000 X 4 = 132,000 lbs. I foot per minute. 

4 X 3-1416 X 100 = 1256-64/ee* velocity. 

1 ^2000 
Then _ , ^— —-. = 105 lbs. = difference of the stress upon the belt and 
12o6-64 

g 

the resistance of the under side of it, ~ z = S, and S -4- s = P. P 

C — 1 

representing the stress transmitted by a belt, s the resistance of its under 
side, and P the sum of S -(- s, or the stress and resistance. 

Illustration. — What should be the resistance of the under side 
of a leather belt running over the semi-circumference of a cast- 
iron pulley, 1 foot in diameter, driven by a power of 200 lbs. ? 

J^-^ 142-85 lbs. 
2-4 — 1 

LIMES, CEMENTS, MORTARS, AND 
CONCRETES. 

Turkish Plaster, or Hydraulic Cement. — 100 lbs. fresh lime 
reduced to powder, 10 quarts linseed-oil, and 1 to 2 ounces cotton. 
Manipulate the lime, gradually mixing the oil and cotton, in a 
wooden vessel, until the mixture becomes of the consistency of 
bread-dough. 

Dry, and, when required for use, mix with linseed oil to the 
consistency of paste, and then lay on in coats. Water-pipes of 
clay or metal, joined or coated with it, resist the effect of humidity 
for very long periods. 

Exterior Plaster or Stucco. — 1 volume of cement powder to 
2 volumes of dry sand. 

In India, to the water for mixing the plaster is added 1 lb. of 
sugar, or molasses, to 8 Imperial gallons of water, for the first coat; 
and for the second or finishing, 1 lb. sugar to 2 gallons water. 

Powdered slaked lime and Smith's forge scales, mixed with 
blood in suitable proportions, make a moderate hydraulic mortar, 
which adheres well to masonry previously, coated with boiled oil. 

The plaster should be applied in two coats laid on in one opera- 
tion, the first coat being thinner than the second. The second 
coat is applied upon the first while the latter is yet soft. 

The two coats should form one of about 1£ inches in thickness, 
and when finished it should be kept moist for several days. 

This process may be modified by substituting for the first coat 
a wash of thick cream of pure cement, applied with a stiff brush 
just before the plaster is laid on. 



LIMES, CEMENTS, ETC. 63 

When the cement is of too dark a color for the desired shade, 
it may be vr ixed with white sand in whole or in part, or lime paste 
may be added until its volume equals that of the cement paste. 

Khorastiar.or Turkish Mortar, used for the construction of 
buildings requiring great solidity, ^ powdered brick and tiles, f fine 
sifted lime. Mix with water to the required consistency, and lay 
en layers of 5 and 6 inches in thickness between the courses of 
brick or stones. 

Interior Plastering, — The mortars used for inside plastering 
are termed Coarse, Fine, Gauge or hard finish, and Stucco. 

Coarse Stuff. — Common lime mortar, as made for brick masonry, 
with a small quantity of hair ; or by volumes, lime paste (30 lbs. 
lime) 1 part, sand 2 to 1\ parts, hair \ part. 

When full time for hardening cannot be allowed, substitute from 
15 to 20 per cent, of the lime by an equal proportion of hydraulic 
cement. 

For the second or brown coat the proportion of hair may be 
slightly diminished. 

Fine Stuff (lime putty). — Lump lime slaked to a paste with a 
moderate volume of water, and afterwards diluted to the consis- 
tency o'f cream, and then to harden by evaporation to the required 
consistency for working. 

In this state it is used for a slipped coat, and when mixed with 
sand or plaster of Paris, it is used for the finishing coat. 

Gauge Stuff, or Hard finish, is composed of from 3 to 4 volumes fine 
stuff and 1 volume plaster of Paris, in proportions regulated by the 
degree of rapidity required in hardening ; for cornices, etc., the 
proportions are equal volumes of each, fine stuff and plaster. 

Stucco is composed of from 3 to 4 volumes of white sand, to 1 
volume of fine stuff, or lime putty. 

Scratch Coat. — The first of three coats when laid upon laths, 
and is from J to f of an inch in thickness. 

One-coat "Work. — Plastering in one coat without finish, either 
on masonry or laths — that is, rendered or laid. 

Two-coat Work. — Plastering in two coats is done either in 
a laying coat and set, or in a screed coat and set. 

The Screed coat is also termed a Floated coat. Laying the first 
coat in two-coat work is resorted to in common work instead of screed- 
ing, when the finished surface is not required to be exact to a straight- 
edge. It is laid in a coat of about \ an inch in thickness. 

The laying coat, except for very common work, should be hand- 
floated. 

The firmness and tenacity of plastering is very much increased 
by hand-floating. 

Screeds are strips of mortar 6 to 8 inches in width, and of the 
required thickness of the first coat, applied to the angles of a room, 
or edge of a wall and parallelly, at intervals of 3 to 5 feet over the 
surface to be covered. When these have become sufficiently hard 
to withstand the pressure of a straight-edge, the inter-spaces be- 
tween the screeds should be filled out flush with them, so as to 
produce a continuous and straight, even surface. 



64 



LIMES 



Slipped Coat is the smoothing off of a brown coat with a small 
quantity of lime putty, mixed with 3 per cent, of white sand, so as 
to make a comparatively even surface. 

This finish answers when the surface is to be finished in dis- 
temper, or paper. 

Hard Finish. — Fine stuff applied with a trowel to the depth 
of about £ of an inch. 

Estimate of Materials and Labor for 100 Square Yards 
of Lath and Plaster. 



Materials 
and Labor. 


3 Coats 
Hard 
Finish. 


Two Coats 
Slipped. 


Materials 
and Labor. 


3 Coats 
Hard 
Finish. 


Two Coats 
Slipped. 


Lime 

Lump lime.. 
Plast. Paris.. 

Laths 

Hair 

Sand 


4 casks. 

2000. 
4 bush. 
7 loads. 


3i casks. 

2000. 
3 bush. 
6 loads. 


AVhite sand.. 

Nails 

Masons 

Laborer 

Cartage 


2\ bush. 
13 lbs. 
4 days. 
3 " 
1 " 


13 lbs. 
3£ days. 

2 " 
1 " 



Hydraulic. — 1 J parts unslacked hydraulic lime, l-£ parts sand, 
1 part gravel, and 2 parts of a hard broken limestone. 

This mass contracts one-fifth in volume. Fat lime may be mixed 
with concrete without serious prejudice to its hydraulic energy. 

Various Compositions of Concrete. — Ports Richmond 
and Tompkins, U. S. 

Hydraulic. — 308 lb3. cement = 3-65 to 3-7 cubic feet of stiff 
paste. 12 cubic feet of loose sand = 9-75 cubic feet of dense. 

For Superstructure. — 11-75 cubic feet of mortar as above, 
and 16 cubic feet of stone fragments. 

In the foundations of Fort Tompkins, about T ^ of its volume 
was composed of stones from J to f of a cubic foot in volume, 
rammed into the wall as the concrete was laid. 

Sea Wall. — Boston Harbor. — Hydraulic. — 308 lbs. cement, 8 
cubic feet of sand, and 30 cubic feet of gravel. The whole pro- 
ducing 32-3 cubic feet. 

Superstructure. — 308 lbs. cement, 80 lbs. lime, and 14-6 
cubic feet dense sands. The whole producing 12-825 cubic feet. 

Cost of labor and materials expended in laying concrete founda- 
tion at Fort Tompkins, during the year 1849, per cubic yard as 
laid, $2.26. 

Transverse Strength 

Of Concretes, Cements, Mortal's, Puzzuolana, and Trass, deduced 
from the Experiments of Generals Totten and Gillmore, U. S. A., 
General Treussart, and M. Voisin. 

Reduced to a uniform Measure of One Inch Square and One Foot in 
Length. Supported at both Ends. 

2 IW ., ' . . , , 
= V per square inch of section, representing value for gen- 

3 4 b d 2 

eral use, being § of ultimate breaking strain. 



LIMES, CEMENTS, ETC 



6$ 



Experiments of Voisin, 1857. 



MOBTAE. 


1 


CONCBETE. 


MOBTAB. 


•a 

3 
13 

O 

3 
O 


CONCRETE. 


One Volume 
of Sand. 


One Volume 
of Pebbles. 


Talue. 


One Volume 
of Sand. 


One Volume 
of Pebbles. 


Value. 


i 




1 

o 

3 


a § 

3 3 

?! 




o 


S 


a 

i 


1 


53 
1 


P 


Q 
o 


o 

o 

so 










— : — 




Lbs. 


Lbs. 













Lbs. 


Lbs. 


1 


•62 


1-69 


1 


1-56 


2-3 


29 


+ 


•38 


1-12 


^ 


1-03 


•58 


1-2 








l 
3f 


1-03 


1-7 


3-2 


t 


•35 


1-05 


1 


1-4 


•48 


1- 








* 


1- 


1-8 


3-1 








* 


1-01 


•35 


•85 








| 


1- 


1- 


1- 


* 


•34 


1- 


1 


1-45 


•3 


•83 


I 


•43 


1-24 


1 


1-45 


1-6 


2-7 








1 

2" 


1-03 


•44 


•65 








* 


1- 


1- 


1-9 


* 


•32 


•96 


1 


1-45 


•41 


■81 


i 


•83 


1-12 


1 


1-4 


•86 


•91 








* 


1-03 


•3G 


•79 



Experiments of General Totten, 1837. 





MOBTAB. 


Concrete. * 


Mortar. 


Concrete. * 


Cemeut 1. 


Cement I. 
Sand -5. 


Cement 1. 
Sand 1. 

Lbs. 

2-3 

•7 


Cement 1. 


Cement 1. 
Sand -5. 


Cement 1. 
Sand I. 


Granite ..1 \ 
Mortar.. .1 J 
Gravel ...1 ) 
Mortar.. .2 j 


Lbs. 
2-9 

1-4 


Lbs. 
2-4 

2-4 


Stone ) 

Gravel j 

Brick 1 

Gravel j 


Lbs. 
19 

•9 


Lbs. 
1- 

1-4 


Lbs. 
•6 

1-6 



*-The granite, bricks, etc., were broken into fragments or spalls of the required size. 



Tensile Strength 

Of various Cements, Mortars, and Masonry, deduced from, the Ex- 
periments of Vicat and Chatoneu at Cherbourg, Gen. Grillmore, IT. 
S. A.., Crystal Palace, Londan, etc. 

Weight or Power required to Tear asunder One Square Inch. 



Materials and Mixtures. 


Ultim. 
Resist- 
ance. 


Materials and Mixtures. 


Ultim. 
Resist- 
ance. 


Boulogne, 100 parts, water 50 


Lbs. 
112 
52 

| 675 

j 462 

142 
134 
233 
1152 

| 948 


Portland, English, 320 days, ce- 
ment 1, sand 2 

" 45 days, pure and 


Lbs. 
| 713 


Boulogne, 1 year, Portland (natu- 
ral) 


l 206 


English, 1 year, Portland (arti- 


" English, pure, 1 month 

" " " 6 inos.... 

Roman, 1 year, from Septaria.. 

" 42 days, cement 1, sand 1 

1, " 2 

1, " 3 

Stonemasonry, Roman cement, 

5mos 


393 
424 


Portland, 42 days, cement 1, sand 1 
" 15 " 


191 

284 


" 135 " 


199 


" English, 320 days, pure... 

" " cement 1, 

sand 1, 


166 



66 



LIMES, CEMENTS, ETC. 



Brick and Granite Masonry, 320 Days. 



Cement, Delafield and Baxter. 



James River. 



'Pure.... 
Cement 
Sand ... 
Cement 
Siftings 
Cement 
Siftings 
Lawrence Co <| ure.... 

/ Cement 
I Sand... 
(Pure.... 

° Newark Lime and Cement Co -I Cement 

(Sand... 

" Brighton and Rosendale Pure.... 

" Newark and Rosendale Pure.... 

" Pure upon bricks 

" 1, sand 1 pure upon bricks 

" 1, " 3 " « 

" Pure upon granite 

" 1, water -5 

" 1, « -42 

" Pure upon bricks, without mortar, mean... 

Common lime 1\ tt 

" sand 2Jj 

Lime paste 1 ) , . , 

Sand... 3 } u P onbricks 

Lime paste 

Sand 

Lime paste 

Sand 

Cement paste 



::: ft 
:::?} 

::: 1} 



ft 
ft 



ft 



Lbs. 
68-56 

68-5 



79-87 

74-5 

87-37 
53-68 

62- 

93-25 

39-62 

80-25 
75-81 
31- 
16- 
7- 
27- 
20- 
27- 
45- 

6- 
6- 
4-13 

11-41 



Crushing Strength of Cements, Stone, etc. 

[Crystal Palace, London.) 

Reduced to a uniform Measure of One Square Inch. 



Material. 



Portland cement, area 1, height 1 
" cement ) 
" sand ]" 



Ultimate 
Pressure. 



Lbs. 
1680 

1244 



Portland cement 1) 
" sand 4 J 
Koman cement, pure. 



Ultimate 
Pressure. 



Lbs. 

1244 

342 



LIMES, CEMENTS, ETC. 



67 



Experiments of General Gillmore. 



Cements 
and Mixtures. 



Delafield and 

Baxter 

High Falls (N.' 
Y.), 270 days- 
James River 

James River, 59 
days 

Portland(Eng.), 
320 days 



Stiff paste. 
Pure 



Cement 

Sand 

Cement 4* 

Water 2-6 

Cement 4- 

Water Vi 

Pure cement.. 

Cement 1 

Sand 2 



Lbs. 

6-* 

11-3 

5-9 

1-9 

3-4* 
10-6 



Cements 
and Mixtures. 



Cement 1 
Sand ... 1 
Cement 1' 
Sand ... 2 
Roman (Eng.), / Cement 1 
100 days. 



Portland Pure 
(Eng.), 100- 
days 




Rosendale, 95 
days 



Rosendale (Hoff- 



man;, 320 days \ Thin 



Lbs. 

12-5 
13- 

8-5 



4- 
7' 

6-7 



4-4* 
4-8* 



* All except the first were submitted to a pressure of 32 lbs. per square inch. 



Akron, New York 

Brighton and Rosendale. 

Cumberland, Md 

James River, Va 

Newark and Rosendale. 
Portland, English 
Remington, Conn 



Round Top, Md 

Rosendale, Hoffman... 
" Lawrence. 

Sandusky, Ohio 

Shepherdstown, Va... 
Utica, 111 



iinmgton, t.onn tro 4 - » a - * i 

Note. — When the paste is not subjected to compression during 
setting, a thin paste produces as strong a mortar as a stiff one. 

Experiments of General Treussart. 



Puzzuolana and Trass — Mortar. 


Value. 
Lbs. 


Puzzuolana and Trass — Mortar. 


Value. 






Lbs. 




r Puzzuolana 1^) 
Sand 1 V5days 


2-8 


f Lime paste. 1 K, 
Stras- I Puzzuolana 2^ f ° aa ^ s 


3-8 


Strasburgh • 


Trass 1 1 

Lime 1 ) 




burgh., j Lime paste. 1 1 Q l( 
i. Trass 2 J 8 


3-1 




Sand lU " 


3-4 


mu . fLime 1 i 

White ) o„„,q * [ c c( 

"IS:::! } 5 






Puzzuolana 1 J 




2-1 



Cement paste, 95 days 13'8 

" 1, lime paste i 13'6 

" 1, " i 11-3 

" 1, " 1 7-9 



Cement paste i, lime paste 1 4*2 

Fire-brick beamf 2*1 

Portland cement, 4 mos 21*3 

Eoman " 4 " 14*8 



Deductions. — 1. Particles of unground cement exceeding ^L of 
an inch in diameter may be allowed in cement paste without sand, 
to the extent of 50 per cent, of the whole, without detriment to its 



f Loaded partly along the bricks, and broke through them. 



68 LIMES, CEMENTS, ETC. 

properties, while a corresponding proportion of sand injures the 
strength of mortar about 40 per cent. 

2. When these unground particles exist in cement paste to the 
extent of 66 per cent, of the whole, the adhesive strength is dimin- 
ished about 28 per cent. For a corresponding proportion of sand 
the diminution is 68 per cent. 

3. The addition of siftings exercises a less injurious effect upon 
the cohesive than upon the adhesive property of cement. The 
converse is true when sand, instead of siftings, is used. 

4. In all the mixtures with siftings, even when the latter 
amounted to 66 per cent, of the whole, the cohesive strength of the 
mortars exceeded its adhesion to the bricks. The same results 
appear to exist when the siftings are replaced by sand, until the 
volume of the latter exceeds 20 per cent, of the whole, after which 
the adhesion exceeds the cohesion. 

5. At the age of 320 days (and perhaps considerably within that 
period) the cohesive strength of pure cement mortar exceeds that 
of Croton front bricks. The converse is true when the mortar 
contains 50 per cent, or more of sand. 

6. When cement is to be used without sand, as may be the case 
when grouting is resorted to, or when old walls are to be repaired 
by injections of thin paste, there is no advantage in having it 
ground to an impalpable powder. 

7. For economy it is customary to add lime to cement mortars, 
and this may be done to a considerable extent when in positions 
where hydraulic activity and strength are not required in an emi- 
nent degree. 

Slaking. — The volume of water required to slake lime will 
vary with limes from 2-5 to 3 times the volume of the lime (quick- 
lime), and it is important that all the water required to reduce 
the lime to a proper consistency should be given to it before the 
temperature of the water first given becomes sensibly elevated. 

Immediately upon the lime being provided with the requisite 
volume of water, it should be covered, in order to confine the heat, 
and it should not be stirred while slaking. When the paste is re- 
quired for grouting or whitewashing, the water required should be 
given at once, and in larger volume than when the paste is re- 
quired for mortar, and when slaked the mass should be transferred 
to tight casks to prevent the loss of water. When the character 
of the limes, as with those of hydraulic energy, will not readily 
reduce, their reduction, which is an indispensable condition, must 
be aided by mechanical means, as a mortar mill. 

The process here given is termed drowning: When the lime is 
retained in a barrel, or like instrument, immersed in water, and 
then withdrawn before reduction occurs, it is termed immersion, 
and when it is reduced by being exposed to the atmosphere, and 
gradually absorbing moisture therefrom, it is termed air-slaked. 

Bricks should be well wetted before use. Sea sand should not 
be used in the composition of mortar, as it contains salt and its 
grains are round, being worn by attrition, and consequently 
having less tenacity than sharp-edged grains. 



LIMES, CEMENTS, ETC. 69 

Fine Clay. — The fusibility of clay arises from the presence of 
impurities, such as lime, iron, and manganese. These may be 
removed by steeping the clay in hot muriatic acid, then washing 
it with water. Crucibles from common clay may be made in this 
manner. 

Pise* is made of clay or earth rammed in layers of from 3 to 4 
inches in depth. In moist climates, it is necessary to protect the 
external surface of a wall constructed in this manner with a coat 
of mortar. 

Asphalt Composition. — Mineral pitch 1 part, bitumen 11, 
powdered stone, or wood ashes, 7 parts. 

2. Ashes 2 parts, clay 3 parts, and sand 1 part, mixed with a little 
oil, makes a very fine and durable cement, suitable for external use. 

Mastic. — Pulverized burnt clay 93 parts, litharge ground very 
fine 7 parts, mixed with a sufficient quantity of pure linseed oil. 

3. Silicious sand 14, pulverized calcareous stone 14, litharge 2, 
and linseed oil 4 parts by weight. 

The powders to be well dried in an oven, and the surface upon 
which it. is to be applied must be saturated with oil. 

4. For Roads. — Bitumen 16-875 parts, asphaltum 225 parts, oil of 
resin 6-25 parts, and sand 135 parts. Thickness, from 1^ to If inches. 

Asphaltum 55 lbs. and gravel 28-7 lbs. will cover an area of 
10-75 square feet. 

Notes by General Gillmore, U. S. A. — All the lime neces- 
sary for any required quantity or batch of mortar should be slaked 
at least one day before it is mixed with the sand. 

All the water required to slake the lime should be poured on at 
one time, the lime should be submerged, and the mass should then 
be covered with a tarpaulin or canvas, and allowed to remain un- 
disturbed for a period of 24 hours. 

The ingredients should be thoroughly mixed, and then heaped 
for use as required. 

Recent experiments have developed that most American cements 
will sustain, without any great loss of strength, a dose of lime 
paste equal to that of the cement paste, while a dose equal to J to 
f the volume of cement paste may be safely added to any Rosen- 
dale cement without producing any essential deterioration of the 
quality of the mortar. Neither is the hydraulic activity of the 
mortars so far impaired by this limited addition of lime paste as 
to render them unsuited for concrete under water, or other sub- 
marine masonry. By the use of lime is secured the double advan- 
tages of slow setting and economy. 

Pointing Mortar is composed of a paste of finely-ground 
cement and clean sharp silicious sand, in such proportions that 
the volume of cement paste is slightly in excess of the volume of 
voids or spaces in the sand. The volume of sand varies from 2J to 
2| that of the cement paste, or by weight, 1 of cement powder to 3 
to 3J of sand. The mixture should be made under shelter, and in 
quantities not exceeding from 2 to 3 pints at a time. 

Before pointing, the joints should be reamed, and in close 
masonry they must be open to \ of an inch, then thoroughly satu- 
rated with water, and maintained in a condition that they will 



70 



LIMES, CEMENTS, ETC. 



neither absorb water from the mortar or impart any to it. Masonry 
should not be allowed to dry rapidly after pointing, but it should 
be well driven in by the aid of a caulking iron and hammer. 

In the pointing of rubble masonry the same general directions 
are to be observed. 

Notes by General Totten, U. S. A.— 240 lbs. lime = l 
cask, will make from 7-8 to 8-15 cubic feet of stiff paste. 

308* lbs. of finely-ground cement will make from 3*7 to 3-8 cubic 
feet of stiif paste ; 79 to 83 lbs. of cement powder will make 1 
cubic foot of stiff paste. 

1 cubic foot of dry cement powder, measured when loose, will 
measure -78 to -8 cubic foot when packed, as at a manufactory. 

100 yards of lath and plaster work, with wages of masons at $1.75 
per day, and Rockland lime at $1 per cask, cost, respectively : 
3 Coats hard finish work, $25.50 ; 2 Coats slipped work, $19.95. 

Mural Efflorescences. — White alkaline efflorescences upon 
the surface of brick walls laid in mortar, of which natural hy- 
draulic lime or cement is the basis. 

The crystallization of these salts within the pores of bricks, into 
which they have been absorbed from the mortar, causes disinte- 
gration. 

Ashphalt Flooring. — 8 lbs. of composition will cover 1 sup. 
foot, | inch thick. 

Plastering. — 1 bushel, or 1^ cubic foot of cement, mortar, etc., 
will cover 1 J square rods f inch thick. 75 volumes are required 
upon brick work for 70 upon laths. 

Cost of Masonry, of various Kinds, per Cubic Yard, and 
the Volume of Mortar required for each. 

Gen. Gillmore, U. S. A. 










•6 




8 ° 


Cost. 








Mortar. 







§1 


*** 


o 


~& 




a 

3 
O 


a 

So 


1.3 


6 "5 3 


a 


n 




k 


►J 


o 


Q 


>j 


o 




Cu. Ft. 


Bbls. 


Bblo. 


$Cts. 


$Cts. 


$ Cts. 


Rough, in rubble or gravel, from ~% 














to -1 cubic foot in volume 


10-8 


•565 


1-22 


90 


4.10 


5. 


Blocks, large and small, not in 
courses; joints hammer-dressed.... 














8-1 


•423 


•92 


62 


7. 


7.63 


Large masses ; headers and stretchers 














dovetailed ; hammer-dressed ; beds 














and joints laid close 


r 


•05 


•11 


08 


9. 


9.08 


Ordinary; courses 20 to 32 in rise 


1-5 


•08 


•17 


12 


5.70 




Ordinary; courses 12 to 20 in rise 


2- 


1-05 


•22 


16 


2.19 






8- 
11- 
9- 

8- 


•42 
•54 
•41 

•37 


•9 
1-75 
1-06 

•97 


66 
1.21 

65 
60 


5.70 
2.19 
1.56 
1.45 


6.10 




3.20 




2.21 




2.05 






Rubble, without mortar 


3. to 


3.30 



Cost of materials assumed as follows: Cement, $1.25 per barrel; 
Lime, $1 ; Bricks, $4.25 per M ; Sand and Gravel, 80 cents per 
ton ; Granite spalls, 55 cents per cubic yard ; Labor, $1 per day . 

* 300 lbs. net is the standard barrel, but it usually weighs 308 lbs. 



71 



ARTIFICERS' RULES AND TABLES, 



For Computing the "Work of Bricklayers, Well Diggers, 
Masons, Carpenters and Joiners, Slaters, Plasterers, 
Painters, Glaziers, Pavers, and Plumbers. 

MEASUREMENT OF BRICKLAYERS' WORK. 

Brickwork is estimated at the rate of a number of bricks in 
thickness, estimating a brick at 4 inches thick. The dimensions 
of a building are usually taken by measuring half round on the 
outside, and half round on the inside ; the sum of these two givei 
the compass of the wall, — to be multiplied by the height, for the 
content of the materials. Chimneys are by some measured as if 
they were solid, deducting only the vacuity from the hearth to the 
mantle, on account of the trouble of them. And by others they 
are girt or measured round for their breadth, and the height of 
the story is their height, taking the depth of the jambs for their 
thickness. And in this case, no deduction is made for the vacuity 
from the floor to the mantle-tree, because of the gathering of the 
breast and wings, to make room for the hearth in the next story. 
To measure the chimney shafts, which appear above the building, 
gird them about with a line for the breadth, to multiply by their 
height; and account their thickness half a brick more than it 
really is, in consideration of the plastering and scaffolding. All 
windows, doors, etc., are to be deducted out of the contents of the 
walls in which they are placed. But this deduction is made only 
with regard to materials; for the whole measure is taken for 
workmanship, and that all outside measure too, namely, measuring 
quite round the outside of the building, being in consideration of 
the trouble of the returns or angles. There are also some other 
allowances, such as double measure for feathered gable ends, etc. 
Example. — The end wall of a house is 28 feet long, and 37 feet 
high to the eaves: 15 feet high is four bricks or 16 inches thick, 
other 12 feet is three bricks or 12 inches thick, and the remaining 
10 feet is two bricks or 8 inches thick : above which is a trian- 
gular gable 12 feet high and one brick or 4 inches in thickness. 
What number of bricks are there in the said wall? Ans. 25,620. 
Thickness. 

28X15=420x4=1680 contents of 1st story. 

28X12=336x3=1008 " " 2d " 

28X10=280x2= 560 " " 3d " 
t2= 6X28=168x1= 168 « " gable. 

3416 square feet area of whole wall. 
7J bricks to square foot. 



23,912 By the table. 
1,708 3000 suprfi. ft. = 22, 500 bricks 

400 " " = 3,000 " 

Answer, 25,620 bricks. 10 " "= 75 " 
6 " " = 45 " 



3416 "' « =25,620 bricks 



72 MEASUREMENT OF BRICKWORK, ETC. 

A Table by which to ascertain the Number of Bricks 
necessary to Construct any piece of Building, from a 
four-inch Wall to twenty-four inches in thickness. 



The utility of the Table can be seen by the following Example. 
Required the number of bricks to build a wall of 12 inches thick- 
ness, and containing an area of 6,437 square feet. 



Square feet 1000 
X 



22,500 bricks — See table. 



6000= 135,000 

400 = 9,000 

30 = 675 



Note. — 1\ bricks, 
equal one superficial foot. 



7 = 



158 



6,437 = 144,833 bricks. 



Superficial 
feet of 




Number of Bricks to Thickness of 
















Wall 


4-inch. 


8-inch. 


12-inch. 


16-inch. 


20-inch. 


24-inch. 


1 


8 


15 


23 


30 


38 


45 


2 


15 


30 


45 


60 


75 


90 


3 


23 


45 


68 


90 


113 


135 


4 


30 


60 


90 


120 


150 


180 


5 


38 


75 


113 


150 


188 


225 


6 


45 


90 


135 


180 


225 


270 


7 


53 


105 


158 


210 


263 


315 


8 


60 


120 


180 


240 


300 


360 


9 


68 


135 


203 


270 


338 


405 


10 


75 


150 


225 


300 


375 


450 


20 


150 


300 


450 


600 


750 


900 


30 


225 


450 


675 


900 


1125 


1350 


40 


300 


600 


900 


1200 


1500 


1800 


60 


375 


750 


1125 


1500 


1875 


2250 


60 


450 


900 


1350 


1800 


2250 


2700 


70 


525 


1050 


1575 


2100 


2625 


3150 


80 


600 


1200 


1800 


2400 


3000 


3600 


90 


675 


1350 


2025 


2700 


3375 


4050 


100 


750 


1500 


2250 


3000 


3750 


4500 


200 


1500 


3000 


4500 


6000 


7500 


9000 


300 


2250 


4500 


6750 


9000 ' 


11250 


13500 


400 


3000 


6000 


9000 


12000 


15000 


18000 


500 


3750 


7500 


11250 


15000 


18750 


22500 


600 


4500 


9000 


13500 


18000 


22500 


27000 


700 


5250 


10500 


15750 


21000 


26250 


31500 


800 


6000 


12000 


18000 


24000 


30000 


36000 


900 


6750 


13500 


20250 


27000 


33750 


40500 


1000 


7500 


15000 


22500 


30000 


37500 


45000 



MEASUREMENT OF WELLS, ETC. 73 

MEASUREMENT OF WELLS AND CISTERNS. 

There are two methods of estimating the value of excavating. 
It may be done by allowing so much a day for every man's work, 
or so much per cubic foot, or yard, for all that is excavated. 

Well Digging. — Suppose a well is 40 feet deep, and 5 feet in 
diameter, required the number of cubic feet, or yards ? 

5 X 5 = 25 X -7851 = 19-635 X 40 = 785-4 cubic feet. 

Suppose a well to be 4 feet 9 inches diameter, and 16J feet from 
the bottom to the surface of the water ; how many gallons are 
therein contained ? 

4-75 2 X 16-5 X5-875 = 2187-152 gallons. 

Again, suppose the well's diameter the same, and its entire depth 
35 feet ; required the quantity in cubic yards of material exca- 
vated in its formation. 

4-75 2 X 35 X '02909 = 22-972 cubic yards. 

A cylindrical piece of lead is required 7J inches diameter, and 
168 lbs. in weight ; what must be its length in inches ? 

7-5 2 X '3223 = 18, and 168 — 18 = 9-3 inches. 

Digging for Foundations, etc.— To find the cubical quantity 
in a trench, or an excaxated area, the length, width and depth 
must be multiplied together. These are usually given in feet, and 
therefore, to reduce the amount into cubic yards it must be divided 
by 27. 

Suppose a trench is 40 feet long, 3 feet wide, and 3 feet deep, 
required the number of cubic feet, or yards ? 

40 X 3 = 120 X 3 = 360 feet -7- 27 = 13£ yards. 

24 cubic feet of sand, 17 ditto clay, 18 ditto earth, equal one ton. 
1 cubic yard of earth or gravel, before digging, will occupy 
about 1£ cubic yards when dug. 

MEASUREMENT OF MASONS' WORK. 

To masonry belongs all sorts of stone-work ; and the measure 
made use of is a foot, either superficial or solid. 

Walls, columns, blocks of stone or marble, etc., are 
measured by the cubic foot ; and pavements, slabs, chimney-pieces, 
etc., by the superficial or square foot. Cubic or solid measure is 
used for the materials, and square measure for the workmanship. 
In the solid measure, the true length, breadth and thickness are 
taken, and multiplied continually together. In the superficial, 
there must be taken the length and breadth of every part of the 
projection, which is seen without the general upright face of the 
building. 

Example. — In a chimney-piece, suppose the length of the man- 
tle and slab each 4 feet 6 inches : breadth of both together 3 feet 
7 



74 MEASUREMENT OF 

2 inches; length of each jamb 4 feet 4 inches; breadth of both 
together 1 foot 9 inches. Required the superficial content. — Ans. 
21 feet 10 inches. 

i *■ 4 6 ^ X 3 «. 2 in. = 14 ft. 3 in. } 21 ^ „ ;nches 

Rubble Walls (unhewn stone) are commonly measured by the 
perch, which is 16^ feet long, 1 foot deep, and 1J foot thick, 
equivalent to 24f cubic feet. 25 cubic feet is sometimes allowed 
to the perch, in measuring stone before it is laid, and 22 after it 
is laid in the wall. This species of work is of two kinds, coursed 
and uncoursed ; in the former the stones are gauged and dressed 
by the hammer, and the masonry laid in horizontal courses, but 
not necessarily confined to the same height. The uncoursed rub- 
ble wall is formed by laying the stones in the wall as they come 
to hand, without any previous gauging or working. 

27 cubic feet of Mortar require for its preparation 9 bushels 
of lime and 1 cubic foot of sand. 

Lime and sand lessen about one-third in bulk when made 
into mortar; likewise cement and sand. 

Lime, or cement and sand, to make mortar, require as much 
water as is equal to one-third of their bulk. 

All Sandstones ought to be placed on their natural beds ; from 
inattention to this circumstance, the stones often split off at the 
joints, and the position of the lamina much sooner admits of the 
destructive action of air and water. 

The heaviest stones are most suited for docks and harbors, 
breakwaters to bridges, etc. 

Granite is the most durable species of stone yet known for the 
purposes of building. It varies in weight according to quality ; 
the heaviest is the most durable. 



MEASUREMENT OF CARPENTERS' AND JOIN- 
ERS' WORK. 

To this branch belongs all the woodwork of a house, such as 
flooring, partitioning, roofing, etc. Large and plain articles are 
usually measured by the square foot or yard, etc., but enriched 
mouldings, and some other articles, are often estimated by run- 
ning or lineal measures, and some things are rated by the piece. 

All Joints, Girders, and in fact all the parts of naked flooring, 
are measured by the cube, and their quantities are found by mul- 
tiplying the length by the breadth, and the product by the depth. 
The same rule applies to the measurement of all the timbers of a 
roof, and also the framed timbers used in the construction of 
partitions. 

Flooring, that is to say, the boards which cover the naked floor- 
ing, is measured by the square. The dimensions are taken from 
ivall to wall, and the product is divided by 100, which gives the 



WORK. 75 

number of squares ; but deductions must be made for staircases 
and chimneys. 

In measuring of Joists, it is to be observed that only one of their 
dimensions is the same with that of the floor ; for the other exceeds 
the length of the room by the thickness of the wall, and one-third 
of the same, because each end is let into the wall about two-thirds 
of its thickness. 

Xo deductions are made for Hearths on account of the addi- 
tional trouble and waste of materials. 

Partitions are measured from wall to wall for one dimension, 
and from floor to floor, as far as they extend, for the other. 

No deduction is made for Doorways on account of the trouble 
of framing them. 

In measuring of Joiners' work, the string is made to ply close 
to every part of the work over which it passes. 

The measure for centring for Cellars is found by making a string 
pas3 over the surface of the arch for the breadth, and taking the 
length of the cellar for the length ; but in groin centring, it is 
usual to allow double measure, on account of their extraordinary 
trouble. 

In Roofing, the length of the house in the inside, together with 
two-thirds of the thickness of one gable, is to be considered as the 
length; and the breadth is equal to double the length of a string 
which is stretched from the ridge down the rafter, and along the 
eaves-board, till it meets with the top of the wall. 

For Staircases, take the breadth of all the steps, by making a 
line ply close over them, from the top to the bottom, and multiply the 
length of this line by the length of a step, for the whole area. — By 
the length of a step is meant the length of the front and the returns 
at the two ends ; and by the breadth, is to be understood the girth 
of its two outer surfaces, or the tread and riser. 

For the Balustrade, take the whole length of the upper part of 
the handrail, and girt over its end till it meets the top of the newel 
post, for the length ; and twice the length of the baluster upon the 
landing, with the girth of the handrail for the breadth. 

For Wainscoting, take the compass of the room for the length ; 
and the height from the floor to the ceiling, making the string ply 
close into all the mouldings, for the breadth. Out of this must be 
made deductions for windows, doors, chimneys, etc., but work- 
manship is counted for the whole, on account of the extraordinary 
trouble. 

For Doors, it is usual to allow for their thickness, by adding it 
to both dimensions of length and breadth, and then to multiply 
them together for the area. If the door be panelled on both sides, 
take double its measure for the workmanship ; but if the one side 
only be panelled, take the area and its half for the workmanship. 
For the surrounding architrave, gird it about the outermost parts 
for its length; and measure over it, as far as it can be seen when 
the door is open, for the breadth. 

Window-shutters, bases, etc., are measured in the same 
manner. 



76 MEASUREMENT OF SLATERS* WORX. 

In the measuring of Roofing for workmanship alone, holes for 
chimney-shafts and sky-lights are generally deducted. But in 
measuring for work and materials, they commonly measure in ah. 
sky-lights, lutheran-lights, and holes for the chimney-shafts, on 
account of their trouble and waste of materials. 

The Doors and Shutters, being worked on both sides, are 
reckoned work and half work. 

Hemlock and Pine Shingles are generally 18 inches long, 
and of the average width of 4 inches. "When nailed to the roof 6 
inches are generally left out to the weather, and 6 shingles are 
therefore required to a square foot. Cedar and Cypress Shingles 
are generally 20 inches long and 6 inches wide, and therefore a 
less number are required for a ' ' square." On account of waste and 
defects, 1000 shingles should be allowed to a square. 

Two 4-penny Nails are allowed to each shingle, equal to 1200 
to a square. 

The weight of a square of Partitioning may be estimated at 
from 1500 to 2000 lbs. ; a square of single-joisted flooring, at from 
1200 to 2000 lbs. ; a square of framed flooring, at from 2700 to 
4500 lbs.; a square of deafening, at about 1500 lbs. 100 superficial 
feet make one square of boarding, flooring, etc. 

In selecting Timber, avoid spongy heart, porous grain, and dead 
knots; choose the brightest in color, and where the strong red 
grain appears to rise on the surface. 



Number of American Iron Machine - Cut Nails in a 
Pound (by count). 



Size. 


Number. 


Size. . 


Number. 


Size. 


Number. 


3 penny. ... 

4 " .... 

5 " .... 


408 

275 

227 


6 penny. 
8 « . 
10 " 


156 

100 

66 


12 penny. 
20 " . 
30 « . 


52 

32 

25 



MEASUREMENT OF SLATERS' WORK. 



In these articles, the content of a roof is found by multiplying 
the length of the ridge by the girth over .from eaves to eaves; 
making allowance in this girth for the double row of slates at the 
bottom, or for how much one row of slates is laid over another. 
When the roof is of a true pitch, that is, forming a right angle 
at top, then the breadth of the building, with its half added, is the 
girth over both sides. In angles formed in a roof, running from 
the ridge to the eaves, when the angle bends inwards, it is called a 
valley ; but when outwards, it is called a hip. It is not usual to 
make deductions for chimney- shafts, sky-lights or other openings. 



IMPORTED SLATES 



77 



Slates, 

[From the Quarries of Rutland County, Vermont."] 



3 Inch Cover. 


2 Inch Cover. 


3 Inch Cover. 


2 Inch Cover. 




No. of Slates 


No. of Slates \ 




No. of Slates 


No. of Slates 


Sizes of Slates. 


to the Square 


to the Square 


Sizes of Slates. 


to the Square 


to the Square 




or 100 Feet. 


or 100 Feet. 




or 100 Feet. 


or 100 Feet. 


24 by 16 


86 


84 


18 by 11 


1741 


163* 


24 by 14 


98 


93* 


18 by 10 


192 


180 


24 by 12 


114 


109 


18 by 9 


213 


200 


22 by 14 


108 


1021 


16 by 12 


184 


171* 


22 by 12 


126 


120 


16 by 10 


221* 


205| 


22 by 10 


152 


144 


16 by 9 


246 


228* 


20 by 14 


129 


1141 


16 by 8 


277 


257 


20 by 12 


143 


133J 


14 by 10 


262 


240 


20 by 11 


146 


145-| 


14 by 9 


293 


266* 


20 by 10 


1691 


160 


14 by 8 


327 


300 


18 by 12 


160 


150 


14 by 7 


374 


343 



" Each Slate is 3 inches bond or cover. The rule for measur- 
ing Slating is, to add one foot for all hips and valleys. No deduc- 
tion is made for Lutheran windows, sky-lights or chimneys, except 
they are of unusual size; then one-half is deducted." 

Imported Slates. 



Names of Slates. 



Duchesses 

Marchionesses 

Countesses 

Viscountesses 

Ladies 

c« 

<< 

a 

Plantations 

«« 

Doubles 

" small 

School Slates for 
Blackboards 



Sizes. 



Inches. Inches. 
24 by 12 



22 
20 
18 
16 
16 
14 
12 
14 
13 
12 
13 
11 



12 

10 

10 
10 

8 



12 
10 
10 

7 

7 



5 ft. by 2* ft. 
5 feet by 3 ft. 



Number of Super- 
ficial Feet each M 
of 1200 will cover. 



1100 
1000 
750 
666| 
583J 
466| 
400 



600 

4581 

416f 

320| 

262* 



Weight of each 

M of 1200 

Slates. 



60 cwt. 

55 " 

40 " 

36 " 

31 " 

25 " 

22 " 
18* " 
33 « 
25 " 

23 " 
17* " 
14* " 



78 plasterers' and pavers' work. 

MEASUREMENT OP PLASTERERS' WORK. 

Plasterers' work is of two kinds, namely, ceiling — which is 
plastering upon laths — and rendering, which is plastering upon 
walls, which are measured separately. 

The co'ntents are estimated either by the foot or yard, or square 
of 100 feet. Enriched mouldings, etc., are rated by running or 
lineal measure. One foot extra is allowed for each mitre. 

One-half of the openings, windows, doors, etc., allowed to com- 
pensate for trouble of finishing returns at top and sides. 

Cornices and mouldings, if 12 inches or more in girt, are some- 
times estimated by the square foot; if less than 12 inches, they 
are usually measured by the lineal foot. 

1 bushel of cement will cover 1^- square yards at 1 inch in 
thickness. 

1 bushel of cement will cover 1J square yards at fths of an 
inch in thickness. 

1 bushel of cement will cover 2^ square yards at £ of an inch 
in thickness. 

1 bushel of cement and 1 of sand will cover 2J square yards at 
1 inch in thickness. 

1 bushel of cement and 1 of sand will cover 3 square yards at 
fths of an inch in thickness. 

1 bushel of cement and 1 of sand will cover 4^ square yards at 
£ of an inch in thickness. 

1 bushel of cement and 2 of sand will cover 8^ square yards at 
1 inch in thickness. 

1 bushel of cement and 2 of sand will cover 4^ square yards at 
fths of an inch in thickness. 

1 bushel of cement and 2 of sand will cover 6f square yards at 
\ of an inch in thickness. 

1 cwt. of mastic and 1 gallon of oil will cover \\ yards at f, or 
2\ at \ inch. 

1 cubic yard of lime, 2 yards of road or drift sand, and 3 bushels 
of hair, will cover 75 yards of render and set on brick, and 70 yards 
on lath, or 65 yards plaster, or render, 2 coats and set on brick, and 
60 yards on lath ; floated work will require about the same as 2 
coats and set. 

Laths are 1^ to 1 J inches by 4 feet in length, and are usually 
set ^th of an inch apart. A bundle contains 100. 1 bundle cf 
laths and 500 nails cover about 4J yards. 



MEASUREMENT OP PAVERS' WORK. 

Pavers' work is done by the square yard ; and the content is 
found by multiplying the length by the breadth. Grading for 
paving is charged by the day. 



glaziers' and painters' work. 79 



MEASUREMENT OF GLAZIERS' WORK. 

Glaziers' work is sometimes measured by the square foot, some- 
times by the piece, or at so much per light; except where the 
glass is set in metallic frames, when the charge is by the fo*>t. In 
estimating by the square foot, it is customary to include the whole 
sash. Circular or oval windows are measured as if they were 
square. 



Table showing the Size and Number of Lights to the 
100 Square Feet. 



Size. 


Lights. 


Size. 


Lights. 


Size. 


Lights. 


Size. 


Lights. 


6 by 8 


300 


12 by 14 


86 


14 by 22 


47 


20 by 20 


36 


7 by 9 


229 


12 by 15 


80 


14 by 24 


43 


20 by 22 


33 


8 by 10 


180 


12 by 16 


75 


15 by 15 


64 


20 by 24 


30 


8 by 11 


164 


12 by 17 


71 


15 by 16 


60 


20 by 25 


29 


8 by 12 


150 


12 by 18 


67 


15 by 18 


53 


20 by 26 


28 


9 by 10 


160 


12 by 19 


63 


15 by 20 


48 


20 by 28 


26 


9 by 11 


146 


12 by 20 


60 


15 by 21 


46 


21 by 27 


25 


9 by 12 


133 


12 by 21 


57 


15 by 22 


44 


22 by 24 


27 


9 by 13 


123 


12 by 22 


55 


15 by 24 


40 


22 by 26 


25 


9 by 14 


114 


12 by 23 


52 


16 by 16 


56 


22 by 28 


23 


9 by 16 


100 


12 by 24 


50 


16 by 17 


53 


24 by 28 


21 


10 by 10 


144 


13 by 14 


79 


16 by 18 


50 


24 by 30 


20 


10 by 12 


120 


13 by 15 


74 


16 by 20 


45 


24 by 32 


19 


10 by 13 


111 


13 by 16 


69 


16 by 21 


43 


25 by 30 


19 


10 by 14 


103 


13 by 17 


65 


16 by 22 


41 


26 by 36 


15 


10 by 15 


96 


13 by 18 


61 


16 by 24 


38 


28 by 34 


15 


10 by 16 


90 


13 by 19 


58 


17 by 17 


50 


30 by 40 


12 


10 by 17 


85 


13 by 20 


55 


17 by 18 


47 


31 by 36 


13 


10 by 18 


80 


13 by 21 


53 


17 by 20 


42 


31 by 40 


12 


11 by 11 


119 


13 by 22 


50 


17 by 22 


38 


31 by 42 


12 


11 by 12 


109 


13 by 24 


46 


17 by 24 


35 


32 by 42 


10 


11 by 13 


101 


14 by 14 


73 


18 by 18 


44 


32 by 44 


10 


11 by 14 


94 


14 by 15 


68 


18 by 20 


40 


33 by 45 


10 


]lbyl5 


87 


14 by 16 


64 


18 by 22 


36 


34 by 46 


9 


11 by 16 


82 


14 by 17 


60 


18 by 24 


33 


30 by 52 


9 


11 by 17 


77 


14 by 18 


57 


19 by 19 


40 


32 by 56 


8 


11 by 18 


73 


14 by 19 


54 


19 by 20 


38 


33 by 56 


8 


12 by 12 


100 


14 by 20 


51 


19 by 22 


34 


36 by 58 


7 


12 by 13 


92 


14 by 21 


49 


19 by 24 


32 


38 by 58 


7 



MEASUREMENT OF PAINTERS' WORK. 

Painters' work is computed in square yards. Every part is 
measured where the color lies ; the measuring line is forced into 
all the mouldings and corners. 



80 



SEWERS. 



Cornices, mouldings, narrow skirtings, reveals to doors and 
windows, and generally all work not more than nine inches wide, 
are valued by their length. Sash-frames are charged so much 
each according to their size, and the squares so much a dozen. 
Mouldings cut in are charged by the foot run, and the workman 
always receives an extra price for party-colors. Writing is charged 
by the inch, and the price given is regulated by the skill and 
manner in which the work is executed; the same is true of imi- 
tations and marbling. The price of painting varies exceedingly, 
some colors being more expensive and requiring much more labor 
than others. In measuring open railing, it is customary to take 
it as flat work, which pays for the extra labor; and as the rails 
are painted on all sides, the two surfaces are taken. It is cus- 
tomary to allow all edges and sinkings. 



MEASUREMENT OP PLUMBERS' WORK. 

Plumbers' work is rated at so much a pound, or else by the 
hundredweight of 112 pounds. Sheet lead, used in roofing, 
guttering, etc., is from 7 to 12 pounds to the square foot. And a 
pipe of an inch bore is commonly from 6 to 13 pounds to the 
yard in length.— [See Table, " Weight of Lead Pipe per Foot."] 



SEWERS. 

Sewers are classed as Drains, Sewers, and Culverts. 

Drains are the small courses, as from one or more locations 
leading to a sewer. 

Sewers are the courses from a series of locations. 

Culverts are the courses that receive the discharge of sewers. 

The greatest fall of rain is 2 inches per hour = 54308-6 gallons 
per acre. 



Drainage of Lands by Pipes. 



Soils. 


Depth 
of Pipes. 


Distance 
apart. 


Soils. 


Depth 
of Pipes. 


Distance 
apart. 


Coarse gravel sand 

Light sand with gravel 
Light loam ,...- 


Ft. In. 
4 6 
4 

3 6 
! 3 2 


Feet. 
60 
50 
33 
21 


Loam with gravel- 


Ft. In. 
3 3 
3 9 
2 9 
2 6 


Feet. 
27 
40 




21 


Stiff clay 


15 









SEWERS. 



81 



Sewers. 



Fig. 42. 



Circular. 55 ^/z X 2/=t>, and tiX fl = V; £ representing area 
of sewer — the wetted perimeter, f inclination of do. per mile, and v 
velocity of flow, in feet per minute ; a area of flow in square feet, and 
V volume of discharge in cubic feet per minute. 

D 2D 

Egg. - =w, —^- = w / , and D = r. D representing height of 
3 o 

sewer, w and w' width at bottom and top, and r radius of sides. 

In culverts less than 6 feet in depth,* the 
brick-work should be 9 inches thick. When 
they are above 6 feet and less than 9 feet, it 
should be 14 inches thick. 

If the diameter of top arch = 1, the diameter 
of inverted arch = -5, and the total depth = the 
sum of the two diameters, or 1*5, then the 
radius of the arcs which are tangential to the 
top, and inverted, will be 1>5. 

From this any two of the elements can be 
deduced, one being known. 

Oval. Top and bottom* should be of equal diameters. The 
diameter -76 depth of culvert; the intersections of the top and 
bottom circles form the centres for striking the courses connecting 
the top and bottom circles. 

The inclination of sewers should not be less than 1 foot in 240. 




Dimensions, Areas, and Volume of Work per Liueal 
Foot of Egg-shaped Sewers of different Dimensions. 



Internal Dimensions. 



Depth. 


Feet. 


n 


3- 


3f 


4'* 


H 


6- 


6-f 


H 


n 


9- 



Diameter of Diameter of 
Top Arch. Invert, 



Feet. 

1-5 

2- 

2-5 

3- 

3-5 

4- 

4-5 

5- 

5-5 

6- 



•75 
1- 

1-25 

1-5 

1-75 

2- 

2-25 

2-5 

2-75 



Sq. Feet. 

2-53 
4-5 
7-03 
10-12 
13-78 
18- 
22-78 
28-12 
34-03 
40-5 



Volume of Brick-work. 



414 Inch 


9 Inch 


13H Inch 


Thick. 


Thick. 


Thick. 


Cub. Feet. 


Cub. Feet. 


Cub. Fe:t. 


2-81 






3-56 






4-31 


9-56 




5-06 


10-87 




5-81 


12-75 




6-56 


14-25 




7-31 


15-75 


24-7*5 




17-06 


27- 




18- 


28-41 




19-69 


30-94 



In laying large sewers through quicksands, cast-iron inverts 
are sometimes employed, and with success, to connect the founda> 
tion of the whole work together. 



* Internal dimensions. 



82 



ARCHES AND ABUTMENTS. 



Area of Surface from which Circular Sewers will dis- 
charge "Water equal in Volume to One Inch in Depth 
upon surface per Hour, including ordinary City Drain- 
age. 



Inclination 
in Feet. 


Diameter of Sewers in Feet. 


2 


2^ 


3 


4 


5 


6 


None 


Area. 

38f 

48 

50 

63 

78 

90 
125 


Area. 

67£ 

75 

87 
113 
143 
165 
182 


Area. 
120 
135 
155 
203 
257 
295 
318 


Area. 
277 
308 
355 
460 
590 
570 
730 


Area. 

570 

630 

'735 

950 

1200 

1388 

1500 


Area. 
1020 


1 in 480 

1 in 240 

1 in 160 

1 in 120 

1 in 80 

1 in 60 


1117 
•1318 

1692 
2180 
2486 
2675 



ARCHES AND ABUTMENTS. 

Approximate Rules and Tables for the Depth of Arches 
and Thickness of Abutments. 

C j/ r = D. C representing coefficient, r radius of arch at crown, t 
thickness of abutment, h height of abutment to spring, and J) depth of 
crown *'n feet. 

In single arches, Stone C = -3, Brick -4, and Rubble -45. 



Depths required for the Crowns of Arches. 



Radius 






Radius 






Radius 






Radius 






of 


StOD' 


Brick. 


of 


Stone. 


Brick. 


of 


Stone. 


Brick. 


of 


Stone. 


Brick. 


Curve. 






Curve. 






Curve. 






Curve. 






Feet. 


Peef 


Feet. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


2 


•4? 


•56 


10 


•95 


1 


26 


24 


1-47 


1-96 


80 


2-68 


3-58 


2*< 


•47 


•63 


11 


I- 


1 


33 


25 


15 


2- 


85 


2-77 


3-69 


3 


•52 


•69 


12 


1-04 


1 


38 


30 


1-64 


2-19 


90 


2-85 


3-8 


zv, 


•56 


•75 


13 


1-08 


1 


44 


35 


1-78 


' 2-37 


95 


2-92 


39 


4 


•6 


•8 


14 


112 


1 


5 


40 


1-9 


2-53 


100 


3- 


4- 


4UJ 


•64 


•85 


15 


1-16 


1 


55 


45 


2-01 


2-68 


110 


3-15 


4-2 


5 


"67 


•9 


16 


1-2 


1 


6 


50 


2-12 


2-83 


120 


3-29 


4-38 


&A 


•71 


•94 


17 


1-23 


1 


65 


55 


2-22 


297 


130 


3-42 


4-56 


6 


•74 


•98 


18 


1-27 


1 


7 


60 


2-33 


3-1 


140 


3-55 


4-73 


7 


•8 


1-06 


19 


1-31 


1 


74 


65 


2-42 


3-22 


150 


3-67 


4-9 


8 


•85 


1-13 


20 


1-34 


1 


79 


70 


2-51 


3-35 


160 


3-8 


5-06 


9 


•9 


1-2 


22 


1-41 


1-88 


75 

* 


2-6 


3-46 


170 


413 


5-22 



ARCHES AND ABUTMENTS. 



83 



Minimum Thickness of Abutments for Arches of 120~, 
where their Depth does not exceed 3 Feet. 

Computed from the formula — 



./ 6 , + (lry_lr 





2 £ ; 2 '_ 






Siring in Fee;. 


?:i-:-i 






1 


5 


7*5 


lj 


1 20 30 



4- 

4-5 

5" 

6- 
T 

8- 
9- 

: 
11- 





4"2 


3-9 


4-4 


42 


4i 


4-5 


4-7 


4-7 


52 


4-9 


3 


51 


5-8 


5-3 


6- 


5*5 


6-2 



4-3 
4-8 
5-2 
5-5 
5-8 
6-1 
6-4 
i 



F"eefc 

4-7 



-.__-. 


^r:j_: :: a; -- 


;_: :: I;:.- j in Feet, 


A^h. 


5 7'5 


10 1 20 1 30 



«£ 


t>- 
6-5 






8*4 


25" 


6-9 


82 


91 


10-5 


e ■ 


7-2 


' 


9-7 


11-1 


35" 


74 


91 


1 -2 


11-8 


40- 


" 


94 


1 


12-8 


4-5" 


78 


' 


11- 


13-4 


5fr 


7-9 


10- 


11-4 


14- 



79 
8-8 

10- 

11-1 

12" 

129 

136 

14-3 

15- 



N "7.. — The abutments are assumed to be without counterforts 
n ing walls. 

Keystones. 

To Compute tJie Depth of Key stones for Segmental Arches of Stone. 

TRATIvrrvz. 

First Class of Arch. -36 j/ of the radius at the crown. 
J Class of Arch. -4^ of the radius at the crown. 
-1 6 ■ '45 -( of the radius at the crown. 

In Viaducts of several Arches. Increase the above units to -42, 
•46, and- 51. 

Railway Bridges. 

For Spans between 25 and 70 feet. 

Rise, I of the Span. Depth of Arch. -055 of the Span. 

Ti '.' test >/ ^hitments, from J to A of the Span. Batter, 1 inch 

: : 

Cost of Tunnels.— ( General G B. McCtelan, U. S. A.) 



Tart. 



st : il is 
Yart. 



Black E: :-k. U.S., greTwacke") ~ ~ n 

slate . 66 ° 

Blaisley. France, lined 3 15 

Blis^orcbEng.. blue clav. lined 1 55 

Blue Bidze. E. 5 .' 4 00 



England freestone, marble. \ „ ,, 

clay. etc.. lined J 

Lebigh, E. S., bard granite.. ... 4 36 

SehnyuaU, E. S.. slate - 

Union, E. S.. slate 2 06 



84 IKON WORKS, FLOUR MILLS, ETC, 

Railway Tunnels. 

In soft sandstone, U. S., without lining, per lineal yard... $88 00 

In loose ground, thick lining, per lineal yard 710 00 

Ordinary brick lining, including centring, per cubic yard. 8 50 

Shafts. 

Blaisley Tunnel, clay, chalk, and loose earth, per yard in depth, 
$139.11. Deepest, 646 feet. 

Black Rock, 7 feet in diameter and 139 in depth, hard slate, per 
yard in depth, $79.50, or per cubic yard, $18.72. 

The time required to drive the heading of the Black Rock Tunnel 
for 1782-5 feet was 2387 turns of 12 hours each. 



IRON WORKS (ENGLAND). 

Temperature of hot blast 600° 

Density of blast and of refining furnace.... 2 \ to 3 lbs. per sq. in. 
Revolutions of puddling rolls per minute, 60; rail rolls, 100; 
rail saw, 800. 

Horse-power (indicated) required for different 
Processes. 



Blast furnace 60 

Refining furnace 26 

Puddling rolls with squeezers 
and shears 80 



Rail rolling train 250 

Small bar train 60 

Double rail saw 12 

Straightening 7 



Rolling-Mills. 

10 tons bar iron per day...... 80 | Plates, for each sq. ft. rolled. 5 

FLOUR MILLS, SAW MILLS, WOOD- 
WORKING MACHINERY. 

Flour Mills. 

For each pair of 4-feet stones, with all the necessary dressing 
machinery, etc., there is required 15 horses' power. 

One pair of 4-feet stones will grind about 5 bushels of wheat 
per hour. Each bushel of wheat so ground per hour requires *87 
actual or 1-11 indicated horses' power, exclusive of dressing and 
other machinery. 

Stones, 4 feet diameter. 120 to 140 revolutions per minute. 



WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY. 85 

Dressing Machines, 21 inches diameter, 450 to 500 revolutions 
per minute. 

Creepers, 3J inches pitch, 75 revolutions per minute. 

Elevator, 18 inches diameter, 40 revolutions per minute. 

Screen, 16 inches diameter, 300 to 350 revolutions per minute. 

788 cubic feet of water, discharged at a velocity of 1 foot per 
second, are necessary to grind and dress 1 bushel of wheat per 
hour = 1-49 horses' power per bushel. 

2000 feet per minute, for the velocity of a stone 4 feet in diam- 
eter, may be considered a maximum speed. 

Saw-Mills. 

Gang saw, 30 square feet of dry oak, or 45 square 
feet of dry pine, per hour 1 horse-power. 

Circular saw, 2-5 feet in diameter, 270 revolutions 
per minute, 40 square feet of oak, or 70 of dry 
spruce 1 " 

300 revolutions per minute. 1-33 square feet of dry pine per 
minute, kerf -^ inch and 6 inches deep, requires the power of 1 
horse for the saw alone; and 1 square foot, kerf \ inch and 1 foot 
in depth, requires a like power. 

4-5 feet in diameter, kerf J and 1 foot in depth, requires 1 
horse's power for 1-33 feet per minute. 

Oak requires nearly one-half more power than pine. 

With a kerf of $ inch, 1 horse's power will saw 2-66 square feet 
per minute. 

The speed of the periphery should be about 50 feet per minute. 

Velocities of Wood-working Machinery in Feet or 
Revolutions per Minute. 

Circular saws, at periphery, 6000 to 7000 feet. 

Band saw, 2500 feet. 

Gang saws, 20 inch stroke, 120 strokes per minute. 

Scroll saws, 300 strokes per minute. 

Planing-machine cutters at periphery, 4000 to 6000 feet. 

Work under planing-machine, JLth of an inch for each cut* 

Moulding-machine cutters, 3500 to 4000 feet. 

Squaring-up-machine cutters, 7000 to 8000 feet. 

Wood-carving drills, 5000 revolutions. 

Machine augers, 1J diameter, 900 revolutions. 

Machine augers, § diameter, 1200 revolutions. 

Gang saws require for 45 superficial feet of pine per hour, 1 
horse power. 

Circular saws require for 75 superficial feet of pine per hour, 1 
horse power. 

In oak or hard wood, f ths of the above quantity require 1 horse 
power. 



86 



MINING AND BLASTING 



Sharpening Angles of Machine Cutters. 



Adzing soft wood across the 
grain 30° 

Planing-mackines, ordinary 
soft wood 35° 



Gouges and ploughing ma- 
chines 40° 

Hard-wood tool cutters 50° to 55° 



MINING AND BLASTING. 



In ordinary Soil, 



Mining. 

= charge of powder in pounds, I representing 



half the depth of the line of least resistance. 

In Masonry, Z 3 X C = charge in pounds ; C representing a coefficient 
depending upon the structure. 

In a plain Wall, = -15, in one with counterforts = -2, and 
under a foundation when it is supported upon two sides =± -4 to -6. 

Blasting. 

In small blasts, 1 pound of powder will loosen about 4J tons. 

In large blasts, 1 pound of powder will loosen about 2§ tons. 

50 or 60 pounds of powder, enclosed in a resisting bag, hung or 
propped up against a gate or barrier, will demolish any ordinary 
construction. 

One man can bore, with a bit 1 inch in diameter, from 50 to 
100 inches per day of 10 hours in granite, or 300 to 400 inches 
per day in limestone. 

Two strikers and a holder can bore, with a bit 2 inches in di- 
ameter, 10 feet in a day in rock of medium hardness. 



PEOJECTION OF WATER. 

Heights to which Water may be Projected through 
Engine Pipes under Pressure. 



Pressure 
per Sq. 
Inch. 


Equivalent 

Head 
of Water. 


Height 
of Jet. 


' Ratio of 
Compression 
of Air in Air- 
chamber. 


Pressure 

per Sq. 

Inch. 


Equivalent 

'Head 
of Water. 


Height 
of Jet. 


Ratio of 
Compression 
of Air in Air- 
chamber. 


Lbs. 

30 
45 

60 

75 


Feet. 

68 
102 
136 
170 


Feet. 

33 

66 

99 

132 


•5 

•33 
•25 

•2 


Lbs. 

90 
105 

120 
150 


Feet. 
204 

238 
272 
340 


Feet. 

165 
198 
231 

297 


•17 
•14 
•125 
•1 



WATER-POWER 



87 



Power required to raise "Water from Wells by a Double- 
acting Lifting Pump. 





Volume 

per 

Hour. 


Depth from which this Volume car 


be raised by each Unit of Power. 


Diameter 

of 

Pump. 


Man turning 
a Crank. 


Donkey 
working a Gin. 


Horse 
working a Gin. 


One Horse- 
power Engine. 


Inches. 

2 


Gallons. 

265 


Feet. 
80 


Feet. 

160 


Feet. 
560 


Feet. 

880 


2£ 


420 


50 


100 


350 


550 


3 


620 


35 


70 


245 


385 


H 


830 


25 


50 


175 


275 


4 


1060 


20 


40 


140 


220 



[See page 159.J 

WATER-POWER. 

To Compute "Water-power. 

528 HP 

•00189 V h = horse's power, and — — — = V ; V representing volume 

of water, in cubic feet, per minute, and h head of water from race in 
feet. 



Effective Horse-power for different Motors. 



Theoretical power 

Undershot wheels = 

Poncelet's un'shot wheel = 

Breast wheel (high) = 

(low) = 

Overshot wheel = 1 „ 



Reaction wheel.. 
Impact wheel 

Turbines 

Tremont turbine. 
Hydraulic ram ... 



•2 

•5 

•6 

•75 

•79 

•6 



Hydraulic Ram. 



882 HP 



= V, *00113 V h = HP ; V representing volume of water in 

cubic feet per minute, h head of water in feet, and HP actual horse- 
power. 



88 WAVES 



Jet Pump. 

The greatest effect of a Jet Pump is when the depth from which 
the water is drawn through the supply or suction pipe is *9 of the 
height from which the water fell to give the jet. 

The flow up the suction pipe being -2 of that of the volume of 
the jet ; hence the effect =-9x2 = -18. 



Imperial Gallons. 

6-2355 Gallons in a Cubic Foot. 



WAVES. 

The undulations of waves are performed in the same time as the 
oscillations of a pendulum, the length of which is equal to the 
breadth of a wave, or to the distance between two neighboring 
c^ities or eminences. 



ALLOYS AND COMPOSITIONS. 



89 



SOLDERS. 





a 
ft 
o 
o 




T3 





u 

CD 
> 

53 


£ 

s 
S 

s 


•6 


O 


4) 

3 


>> 
a 


s 


Tin 




25 
58 
33 
67 

*33" 

"33" 
50 

"60" 

"46"' 
"47" 


75 
16 
67 
33 

"67* 

"45" 

25 

"34" 
"26" 


50 

33 

5 

50 
47 

"34" 
"33" 


:::::: 


16" 





""" 





M 




10 


" coarse, melts at 500°... 

" ordinary, melts at 360° 


"56" 

67 






"82" 
...... 

...... 

"so" 

67 


:::::: 


1 




Lead 




Steel 


13 

50 

47 






"22" 

25 
40" 


"89" 


"21" 


















Gold 


4 
66 








'* sott 




Silver, hard 

" soft 


20 
12 










66 
53 


1 











A Plastic Metallic Allot.— See Journal of Franklin Institute, 
vol. xxxix, page 55, for its composition and manufacture. 

Composition for Welding Cast Steel.— Borax, 10 parts; sal- 
ammoniac, 1 part. Grind or pound them roughly together; fuse 
them in a metal pot over a clear fire, continuing the heat until all 
spume has disappeared from the surface. When the liquid is clear, 
pour the composition out to cool and concrete, and grind to a fine 
powder; then it is ready for use. 

To use this composition, the steel to he welded should be raised to 
a bright yellow heat; then dip it in the welding powder, and again 
raise it to a like heat as before; it is then ready to be submitted to 
the hammer. 



FUSIBLE COMPOUNDS. 



Compounds. 


6 

a 
5 


a 


i 


a 

so 

P3 


a 
a 

s 


Rose's fusing at 200° 




25 
........ 

12 


25 
33.3 
31 
25 


50 
33.4 
50 
50 




Fusing at less than 200° 


33.3 




Newton's, fusing at less than 212° 

Fusing at 150° to 160° 


13 ' 









Soldering Fluid for use with Soft Solder.— To 2 fluid oz. of 
muriatic acid add small pieces of zinc until bubbles cease to rise. 
Add y 2 a teaspoonful of sal-ammoniac and 2 fluid oz. of water. 
8 



90 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES. 

By the application of this to iron or steel, they may be soldered 
without their surfaces being previously tinned. 

FLUXES FOR SOLDERING OR WELDING. 

Iron , Borax. 

Tinned Iron Resin. 

Copper and Brass Sal-ammoniaCo 

Zinc Chloride of zinc 

Lead Tallow of resin. 

Lead and tin pipes Resin and sweet oil. 

Steel.— Sal-ammoniac, 1 part; borax, 10 parts. Pound together, 
and fuse until clear, and, when cool, reduce to powder. 

Babbitt's Anti-attrition Metal.— Melt 4 lbs. copper; add, by 
degrees, 12 lbs. best Bancatin; 8 lbs. regulus of antimony, and 12 
lbs. more of tin. After 4 or 5 lbs. tin have been added, reduce the 
heat to a dull red, then add the remainder of the metal as above. 

This composition is termed hardening; for lining, take 1 lb. of this 
hardening, melt with it 2 lbs. Banca tin, which produces the lining 
metal for use. Hence, the proportions for lining metal are 4 lbs. of 
copper, 8 of regulus of antimony, and 96 of tin. 



MISCELLANEOUS NOTES. 

Dimensions of Drawings for Patents. — United States, all of 
drawing and signature to be within marginal line of 8 x 13 inches. 
Leave 1 inch margin, making the paper 10 x 15 inches. 

Service Train of a Quartermaster.— The Quartermaster's 
train of an army averages 1 wagon to every 24 men; and a well- 
equipped army in the field, with artillery, cavalry, and trains, re- 
quires 1 horse or mule, upon the average, to every 2 men. 

A Luminous Point, to produce a visual circle, must have a velo- 
city of 10 feet in a second, the diameter not exceeding 15 inches. 

Ail solid bodies become luminous at 800 degrees of heat. 

Tides.— The difference in time between high water averages 
about 49 minutes each day. 

In sandy soil, the greatest force of a pile-driver will not drive a 
pile over 15 feet. 

A Fall of .1 of an inch in a mile will produce a current in rivers. 

Melted Snow produces from %to%oi its bulk in water. 

At the depth of 45 feet, the temperature of the earth is uniform 
throughout the year. 



STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 91 

A Spermaceti Candle .85 of an inch in diameter consumes an 
inch in length in 1 hour. 

Silica is the base of the mineral world, and Carbon of the or- 
ganized. 

Sound passes in water at a velocity of 4,708 feet per second. 

Metals have five degrees of lustre — splendent, shining, glistening \ 
glimmering and dull. 

A Marble-saw requires half a horse's power. 

Wire and Hemp Ropes.— A wire rope 3% ins. in circumference, 
and a hemp shroud 8 ins. in circumference, parted in the rope at 
10>£ tons — 4,600 lbs. per square inch. 

Endless Ropes.— The friction or adhesion of ropes is from .1 to 
.07 of their weight. 

Brief Rules for the Computation of the Weights of Cast 
Iron Pipes and Cast and Wrought Iron Bolts.- (Horatio Allen. ) 
— Cast Iron Pipes. — To the inner diameter of the pipe add the 
thickness of the pipe in inches, and multiply the sum by 10 times the 
thickness, and the product will give the weight in pounds per foot. 

Wrought Iron Bolts. — Square the radius of the bolt and multi- 
ply it by 10, and the product will give the weight in pounds per 
foot. 

For cast iron, subtract 2-27, or, .074 of the result. 

Malleable or Aluminum Bronze.— By weight: Copper, 90; 
Aluminum, 10 . This composition may be forged either when heated 
or cooled, and becomes extremely dense. Its tensile strength is 
100,000 lbs., and when drawn into wire 128,000 lbs., and its elasti- 
city one half that of wrought iron. Specific gravity, 7700. 



STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 

ELASTICITY AND STRENGTH. 

The component parts of a rigid body adhere to each other with a 
force which is termed cohesion. 

Elasticity is the resistance which a body opposes to a change of 
form. 

Strength is the resistance which a body opposes to a permanent 
separation of its parts. 

Elasticity and strength, according to the manner in which a force 
is exerted upon a body, are distinguished as tensile strength, or ab- 
solute resistance; transverse strength, or resistance to flexure; crush- 
ing strength, or resistance to compression; torsional strength, or re- 
sistance to torsion; and detrusive strength; or resistance to shearing. 



92 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 

The limit of stiffness is flexure, and the limit of strength or resist- 
ance is fracture. 

Resilience, or toughness of bodies, is strength and flexibility com* 
bined ; hence any material or body which bears the greatest load, 
and bends the most at the time of fracture, is the toughest. 

The specific gravity of iron is ascertained to indicate very cor- 
rectly the relative degree of its strength. 

The neutral axis, or line of equilibrium, is the line at which ex= 
tension terminates and compression begins. 

The resistance of cast iron to crushing and tensile strains is, as a 
mean, as 4, 3 to 1.* 

English cast iron has a higher resistance to compression, and a 
less tensile resistance, than American. 

The mean tensile strength of American cast iron, as determined 
by Major Wade for the U. S. Ordnance Corps, is 31,829 lbs. per 
square inch of section; the mean of English, as determined by Mr. 
E. Hodgkinson for the Railway Commission, etc., in 1849, is 19,484 
lbs. ; and by Col. Wilmot at Woolwich, in 1858, for gun-metal, is 
23,257 lbs. 

The ultimate extension of cast iron is the 500th part of its length. 

The mean traverse strength of American cast iron, also deter- 
mined by Major Wade, is 681 lbs. per square inch, suspended from 
a bar fixed at one end and loaded at the other; and the mean of 
English, as determined by Fairbairn, Barlow, and olhers, is 500 lbs. 

The resistance of wrought iron to crushing and tensile strains is, 
as a mean, as 1'5 to 1 for American; and for English, 1*2 to 1. 

The mean tensile strength of American wrought iron, as deter- 
mined by Prof. Johnson, is 55,900 lbs., and the mean of English, as 
determined by Capt. Brown, Barlow, Brunei, and Fairbairn, is 
53,900 lbs. f 

The ultimate extension of wrought iron is the 600th part of its 
length. 

The resistance to flexure, acting evenly over the surface, is nearly 
% the tensile resistance. 

Modulus of Elasticity.— The modulus or coefficient of the 
elasticity of any substance is the measure of its elastic reaction or 
force, and is tlie height of a column of the same substance, capable 
of producing a pressure on its base, which is to the weight causing 
a certain degree of compression, as the length of the substance is 
to the diminution of its length. 

It is computed by this analogy: As the extension or diminution 
of the length of any given substance is to its length in inches, so is 
the force that produced that extension or diminution to the modulus 
of its elasticity. 

Or, x : P : : l:w = —,x representing the length a substance 1 in. square 
x 

*The experiments of Mr. Hodgkinson on iron of low tensile strength 
gives a mean of 6.595 to 1. 

+The results, as given by Mr. Telford, included experiments upon 
Swedish iron ; hence tney are omitted in this summary. 



STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 93 

and 1 foot in length would be extended or diminished by the force P, 
and w the weight of the modulus in lbs. 

To Compute the Weight of the Modulus of Elasticity 
of a Substance. — Rule. — As the extension or compression of the 
length of any substance is to its length, so is the weight that pro- 
duced that extension or compression to the modulus of elasticity 
in pounds avoirdupois. 

Example.— If a bar of cast-iron, 1 inch square and 10 feet in length, 
is extended .008 inch, with a weight of 1000 lbs., what is the weight of its 
modulus of elasticity? 

.008 : 120 (10X12) : : 1000 : 15,000,000 lbs. 

Note. — When the weight of the modulus of elasticity of a substance 
is known, the height of it can be readily computed by dividing the 
weight by the weight of a bar of the substance 1 inch square and 1. foot 
in length. 

Ex, 2. — If a wrought-iron chain, 60 feet in length and .2 inch in diam- 
eter, is subjected to a strain of 150 fi>s., what will it be extended? 

The modulus of elasticity of iron wire is 26,808,000 lbs., and the area of 
chain .22x.7854=.3l416. 
150 

=477,463 fts. per square inch, and 60x12=720 ins. 

.31416 

120 343,773 36 

Then 477.463X = =.0128 inch. 

26,80S,000 26,808,000 

To Compute the Weight when the Height is Given. — 
Rule. — Multiply the weight of 1 foot in length of the material by 
the height of the modulus in feet, and the product will give the 
weight. 

To Compute the Height of the Modulus of Elasticity. — 
Rule. — Divide the weight of the modulus of elasticity of the 
material by weight of 1 foot of it and the quotient will give the 
height in feet. 

From a series of elaborate experiments by Mr. E. Hodgkinson 
for the Railway Commission, he deduced the following formulas for 
the extension and compression of cast and wrought iron: 

e e2 

Cast-iron Extension : 13,934,040 - — 2,907,432,000 — = W. 

I Z2 

c c 2 

Cast-iron Compression: 12,931,560 522,979,200 — = W, e and c re- 

l I 2 

presenting the extension and compression, and I the length in inches. 

Iiii/crsTRATiON.— What weight will extend a bar of cast-iron, 4 inches 
square and 10 leet in length, to the extent of .2 inch? 
.2 .22 

13,934,040X 2,907,432,000 = 23223.4 — 8076.2 -= 15147.2, whish X 4 ins. 

120 1202 

= 60588.8 as. 



94 



STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 



MODULUS OF ELASTICITY AND WEIGHT OF VARIOUS SUB- 
STANCES. 



Substances. 



Ash 

Brass, yellow... 

" wire 

Copper, cast 

Elm 

Fir, red 

Glass 

Gun-metal 

Hempen fibres. 

Ice 

Iron, cast 

" wrought.. 

" wire 

Lead, cast 



tJD<S 


+3 . 


"8 a 




4,9/0,000 


1,656,670 


2,460,000 


8,464,000 


4.112,000 


14,632,720 


4,800,000 


18,240,000 


5,680,000 


1,499,500 


8,330,000 


2,016,000 


4,440,000 


5,550,000 


2,790,000 


8,844,300 


5.000,000 


170,000 


6,000,000 


2,370,000 


5,750.900 


1,796,850 


7,550.000 


25,820.000 


8,377,000 


28,230,500 


146,000 


720,000! 



Substances. 



Lignum-vitse ... 

Limestone 

Mahogany 

Marble, white... 

Oak 

Pine, Pitch, 

White 

Steel, cast 

wire 

Stone, Portland 

Tin, cast 

Willow 

Yel. Pine, mean 
Zinc 



1,850,000 
2,400,000 
6,570,000 
2,150,000 
4,750,000 
8,700,000 
8,9/0,000 
8,530,000 
9,000,090 
1,672,000 
1,053,000 
H.200 000 
10,500,000 
4,480,000 






1,080,400 
3,300,000 
2,071.000 
2,508,000 
1,710,000 
2,430,000 
1,830,000 
26,650,000 
28,689.000 
1718,800 
3,510,000 
1,426,000 
2,100,000 
13,440,000 



The elasticity of Ivory, as compared to Glass, is as .95 to 1. 

To Compute the Length of a Prism of a Material -which 
would be severed by its own "Weight when Suspended. — 
Rule. — Divide the tensile resistance of the material by the weight 
of a foot of it in length, and the quotient will give the length. 

Modulus of Cohesion, or Length in Feet required to Tear 
assunder the following Substances.— Rawhide, 15,375 feet; 
hemp twine, 75,000 feet; Catgut, 25,000 feet. 

Tensile Strength.— Tensile strength is the resistance of the 
fibres or particles of a body to separation. It is therefore propor- 
tional to their number, or to the area of its transverse section. 

The fibres of wood are strongest near the centre of the trunk or 
limb of a tree. 

Cast Ikon.— Experiments on cast iron bars give a tensile strength 
of from 4,000 lbs. to 5,000 lbs. per square inch of its section, as just 
sufficient to balance the elasticity of the metal, and as a bar of it is 
extended the 5500th part of its length for every ton of direct strain 
per square inch of its section, it is deduced that its elasticity is fully 
excited when it is extended less than the 3000th part of its length, 
and the extension of it at its limit of elasticiy is estimated at the 
1200th part of its length. 

The mean tensile strength, then, of cast iron being from 16,000 to 
20,000 lbs., the value of it, when subjected to a tensile strain, may 
be safely estimated at from % to Hot this, or of its breaking strain. 

A bar of cast iron will contract or expand .000006173, or the 
162000th of its length for each degree of heat; and assuming the ex- 
treme range of the temperature in this country 140° ( — 20° + 120°), 
it will contract or expand with this change .0008642, or the 1157th 
part of its length. It shrinks in cooling from .0104 to .0118 of its 
length. 

It follows, then, that as 2240 lbs. will extend a bar the 5500th 



STRENGTH OF MATEEIALS. 95 

part of its length, the contraction or extension for the 1157th part 
will be equivalent to a force of 10,618 lbs. (i% tons) per square inch 
of section. 

Cast iron (G-reenwood) at three successive meltings gave tenaci- 
ties of 21,300, 30,100, and 35,700 lbs. 

Cast iron at 2.5 tons per square inch will extend the same as 
wrought iron at 5.6 tons. 

The mean tensile strength of four kinds of English cast iron, as de- 
termined by the Commissioners on the Application of Iron to Railway- 
Structures, was 15,711 lbs. per square inch (7.014 tons); and the 
mean ultimate extension was, for lengths of 10 feet, .1997 inch, 
being the 600th part of its length; and this weight would compress 
a bar the 775th part of its length. 

Tensile strength of the strongest piece of cast iron ever tested — 
45,970 lbs. This was a mixture of grades 1, 2, and 3 of Greenwood 
iron, and at the 3d fusion. 

Wrought Iron. — Experiments on wrought iron bars give a 
tensile strength of from 18,000 lbs. to 22,400 lbs. per square inch of its 
section, as just sufficient to balance the elasticity of the metal, and 
as a bar of it is extended the 10,000th part of its length for every ton 
of direct strain per square inch of its section, it is deduced that its 
elasticity is fully excited when it is extended the 1000th part of its 
length, and the extension of it at its limit of elasticity is estimated 
at the 1520th part of its length. 

The mean tensile strength of wrought iron being from 55,000 to 
65,000 lbs., the value of it, when subjected to a tensile strain, maybe 
safely estimated at from yi to \i of this, or of its breaking strain. 
A bar of wrought iron will expand or contract .000006614, or the 
151,200th part of its length for each degree of heat; and assuming, 
as before stated for cast iron, that the extreme range of temperature 
in the air in this country is 140°, it will contract or expand with this 
change .000926, or the 1080th of its length, which is equivalent to a 
force of 20,740 lbs. {9% tons) per square inch of section. 

Experiments upon wrought iron, to determine the results from 
repeated heating and laminating, furnished the following: — From 1 
to 6 reheating and rollings, the tensile strength increased from 
43,904 lbs. to 61,824 lbs., and from 6 to 12 it was reduced to 43,904 
again. 

The tensile force of metals varies with their temperature, generally 
decreasing as the temperature is increased. In silver the tenacity- 
decreases more rapidly than the temperature; in copper, gold, and 
platinum it decreases less rapidly than the temperature. 

In iron, the tensile strength at different temperature is as follows; 
60O, l; 1140 i.i4 ; 212°, 1.2: 250°, 1.32; 270°, 1.35; 325°, 1.41; 
4350, 1.4. 

Stirling's Mixed or Toughened Iron.— By the mixture of a 

Eortion of malleable iron with cast iron, carefully fused in a cruci- 
le, a tensile strain of 25,764 lbs. has been attained. This mixture, 
when judiciously managed and duly proportioned, increases the 
resistance of cast iron about one-third; the greatest effect being ob- 
tained with a proportion of about 30 per cent, of malleable iron. 
Bronze (gun-metal) varies in tenacity from 23,000 to 54,500 lbs. 



96 



STRENGTH OF MATERIALS, 



ELEMENTS CONNECTED WITH THE TENSILE RESISTANCE 02 
VARIOUS SUBSTANCES. 



Substances. 



Beech 

Cast-iron, English... 
** American 

Oak 

Steel plates, blue 

tempered 

Steel wire 

Yellow Pine 

Wrought- iron, or'dy 



Drain 
Inch 
it of 




leS 
Sq. 
lim 
stici 




'» ft 1*£ 


.2^m 


g&£H 


■go a 


EH 


33 


Lbs. 




3,355 


3 


4,000 


.22 


5,000 


.2 


2,856 


.23 


93,720 


.62 


35.700 


.5 


3,332 


.23 


17,600 


.3 



Substances. 



"Wrought-iron, Swe. 
Eng. | 

Am. 

, No. 9, 



Wrought wire 
unannealed. 

Wrought wire 
annealed .... 



,No.! 



.2 -go 

H 



Lbs. 
24,400 
18,850 
22,400 
21,000 

47,532 

36,300 



3 i <B 



.34 

.35 
.35 

.26 

.49 
.45 



TENSILE STBENGTH OF MATERIALS. 

WEIGHT OR POWER REQUIRED TO TEAR ASUNDER ONE SQUARE 

INCH, 

METALS. 



Coppei*, wrought 

" rolled 

" cast, American 

" wire 

bolt 

Iron, cast. Low Moor, No. 2 

" Clvde, No. 1 

No. 3 

" Calder, No. 1 

" Stirling, mean 

" mean of American 

" mean* of English 

" Greenwood, Amer'n.. 

" gun-metal, mean 

" wrought, wire 

" best Swedish bar 

" Russian bar 

" English bar 

" rivets, American 

" bolts 

" hammered 

" mean of English 

" rivets, English 

" crankshaft 

" turnings 

•* plates, boiler, ) 

American s 



Lbs. 



34000 
36000 
24250 
61200 
36S0O 
11076 
16125 
23168 
13735 
25764 
31829 
19484 
45970 
37.232 
103000 
720U0 
59500 
56000 
53300 
52250 
53913 
53900 
< 15000 
44750 
55S00 
48000 
62000 





Lbs. 


Iron plates, mean, English 
" " lengthwise 


51000 
53800 

48800 


" inferior, bar 


30000 
73600 


16diam 

44 scrap 

Lead, cast 

" milled 


80000 

53400 

1800 

3320 


" wire 

Platinum, wire 

S'lver, cast 

Steel, cast, maximum 


2580 

53000 

40000 

142000 

88657 


" blistered, soft 1 


133000 
101000 
124000 




170980 


" puddled, extreme... 
" American Tool Co... 
" plates, lengthwise... 
" " , crosswise 


173817 
179980 
96300 
93700 
150000 


Tin, cast, block 


5000 
2122 




3500 


" sheet 


16000 



Lake Superior and Iron Mountain charcoal bloom iron has resisted 
9C000 lbs. per square inch. 
• By Commissioners on Application of Iron to Railway Structures. 



STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 
MISCELLANEOUS SUBSTANCES. 



97 



Brick, well burned 

" fire 

44 inferior I 

Cement, blue stone 

44 hydraulic 

" Harwich 

" Portland, 6 mos.. 

" Sheppy 

" Portland 1, sand 3 

Chalk 

Glass, crown 

Gutta-percha 

Hydraulic lirne 

" " mortar 

Ivory 

Leather belts 



Lbs. 



750 

65 
290 
100 

77 
234 

30 
414 

24 

380 

118 

2346 

3500 

140 

140 

16000 

330 



Limestone 

Marble, Italian 

44 white 

Mortar, 12 years old.... 

Plaster of Paris 

Rope, Manilla 

" hemp, tarred 

" wire 

Sandstone, fine grain. 

Slate 

Stone, bath 

" Craigleth 

" Hailes 

" Portland 

Whalebone 



Lbs. 

"~670 

2800 

5200 

9000 

60 

72 

9000 

15000 

37000 

200 

12000 

352 

400 

360 

857 

1000 

7600 



COMPOSITIONS. 



Gold 5, Copper 1. 

Brass , 

" yellow , 

Bronze, least 

44 greatest 



Lbs. 



50000 
42000 
18000 
17698 
56788 



Copper 10, Tin 1 

44 8, Tin 1, gun-metal 
" 8, ' 4 1, small bars 

Tin 10, Antimony 1 

Yellow metal 



Lbs. 



32000 
30000 
50000 
11000 

48700 



WOODS. 





Lbs. 

14000 
11500 
20000 
15000 
11400 
10500 

6000 
12400 
13400 
23000 
11800 
20500 
21000 
12000 

8C00 




Lbs. 


Ash 


Maple 


lOouO 




11500 


Box 


44 English 


10000 


Bay 


44 seasoned 


13600 


Cedar 


44 African 


14500 


Chestnut, sweet 


Pear 


9800 




Pine, pitch 


1200G 




9500 


Elm 


44 American white 

Poplar 

Spruce, white 


11800 




7000 


Lignum-vitse 


10290 


Locust 


Svcamore 


13000 


Mahogany 


Teak 


14000 


44 Spanish 


Walnut 


7800 


tc ^ .. 


Willow .... 


13000 











98 



STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 



EESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS ON THE TENSILE STRENGTH 0* 
WROUGHT IRON TIE RODS. 

Common English Iron, 1 T \ Inches in Diameter. 



Description of Connection. 



I Breaking 
I Weight. 



Semicircular hook fitted to a circular and welded eye. 

Two semicircular hooks hooked together 

Right-angled hook or goose-neck fitted into a cylindrical eye 

Two links or welded eyes connected together 

Straight rod without any connection articulation 



Lbs. 
14000 
16220 
29120 
48160 
56000 



Iron bars when cold rolled are materially stronger than when only 
hot rolled, the difference being in some cases as great as 3 to 2. 

WIRE ROPES. 

RESTJLT OF EXPERIMENTS ON THE TENSILE STRENGTH OF 
IRON AND STEEL WIRE ROPES. 



c3 o 


u 

ft 

+3 -1-5 


M 

S"3b 






u 

ft 

£ O 


6«J 


O u 


MO 




iSg 


2^ 


0> 




Sis 


£ 


QQ O 


w 


£ 


PQ 


Ins. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Ins. 


Ins. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


11 


i 

"2 


13440 


1 T6 


H 


i 

? 


33600 


8f 


H 


44800 


03 

Z 8 


f 


56000 



EXTENSION OF CAST-IRON BARS WHEN SUSPENDED 
VERTICALLY. 

1 Inch Square and 10 Feet in Leugth. Weight applied at one end. 



1 

ft 


d" 




ft 


d 




cS . 


o 




e3 . 


o 




♦a-a 






♦stS 






MS 


§ 




MS 


6 






+3 


SO 


"53 ft 




30 


Lbs. 


Ins. 


Ins. 


Lbs. 


Ins. 


Ins. 


529 


.0044 




4234 


.0397 


.00265 


1058 


.0092 


.000015 


8468 


.0871 


.00855 


2117 


.0190 


.000059 


14820 


.1829 


.02555 



Steel.— The tensile strength of steel increases by reheating and 
rolling up to the second operation, but decreases after that. 

The relative resistance of wrought iron and copper to tension 
and compression is as 100 to 54.5. 

Transverse Strength.— The Transverse or Lateral Strength of 
any Bar, Beam, Mod, etc., is in proportion to the product of its 



STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 99 

breadth and the square of its depth; in like-sided beams, bars, etc., 
it is as the cube of the diameter of the section. 

When one end is fixed and the other projecting, the strength is in- 
versely as the distance of the weight from the section acted upon; 
and the strain upon any section is directly as the distance of tha 
weight from that section. 

When both ends are supported only, the strength is 4 times greater 
for an equal length, when the weight is applied in the middle be- 
tween the supports, than if one end only is fixed. 

When both ends are fixed, the strength is 6 times greater for an 
equal length, when ttie weight is applied in the middle, than if one 
end only is fixed. 

The strength of any beam, bar, etc., to support a weight in the 
centre of it, when the end rests merely upon two supports, compared 
to one when the ends are fixed, is as 2 to 3. 

When the weight or strain is uniformly distributed, the weight or 
strain that can be supported, compared with that when the weight 
or strain is applied at one end or in the middle between the sup- 
ports, is as 2 to 1. 

In metals, the less the dimension of the side of a beam, etc., or 
the diameter of a cylinder, the greater its proportionate transverse 
strength. This is in consequence of their having a greater propor- 
tion of chilled or hammered surface compared to their elements of 
strength, resulting from dimensions alone. 

The strength of a cylinder, compared to a square of like diame- 
ter or sides, is as 6.25 to 8. The strength of a hollow cylinder to 
that of a solid cylinder, of the same length and volume, is as the 
greater diameter of the former is to the diameter of the latter. 

The strength of an equilateral triangle, fixed at one end and loaded 
at tit ; other, having an edge up, compared to a square of the same 
area, is as 22 to 27; and the strength of an equilateral triangle, 
having an edge down, compared to one with an edge up, is as 10 to 7. 

Note.— In these comparisons, the beam, bar, etc., is considered 
as one end being fixed, the weight suspended from the other. In 
Barlow and other authors the comparison is made when the beam, 
etc. , rested upon supports. Hence the stress is contrariwise. 

Detrusion is the resistance that the particles or fibres of materials 
oppose to their sliding upon each other. Punching and shearing 
are detrusive strains. 

Deflection. — When a bar, beam etc., is deflected by a cross-strain, 
the side of the beam, etc., which is bounded by the concave sur* 
face, is compressed, and the opposite side is extended. 

In stones and cast metals, the resistance to compression is greater 
than the resistance to extension. 

In woods, the resistance to extension is greater than the resistance 
to compression. 

The general law regarding deflection is, that it increases, coeteris 
paribus, directly as the cube of the length of the beam, bar, etc., 
and inversely as the breadth and cube of the depth. 



100 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 

The resistance of flexure of a body at its cross-section is. very 
nearly 9-10 of its tensile resistance. 

The stiffest bar or beam that can be cut out of "a cylinder is that of 
which the depth is to the breadth as the square root of 3 to 1; the 
strongest, as the square root of 2 to 1 ; and the most resilient, that 
which has the breadth and depth equal. 

KELATIVE STIFFNESS OF MATERIALS TO RESIST A 
TRANSVERSE STRAIN. 

Ash .089 White pine .1 

Beech 073 Yellow pine 087 

Elm 079 Wrought iron 1.3 

Oak 095 Cast iron '. 1. 

The strength of a rectangular beam in an inclined position, to re- 
sist a vertical stress, 'is to its strength in a horizontal position as the 
square of radius to the square of the cosine of elevation; that is, as 
the square of the length of the beam to the square of the distance 
between its points of support, measured upon a horizontal plane. 

Experiments upon bars of cast iron, 1, 2, and 3 inches square, give 
a result of transverse strength of 447, 348, and 338 lbs. respectively; 
being in the ratio of 1, .78, and .756. 

The strongest rectangular bar or beam that can be cut out of a eyl- 
inder is one of which the squares of the breadth and depth of it, and 
the diameter of the cylinder, are as 1, 2, and 3 respectively. 

The ratio of the crushing to the transverse strength is nearly the 
same in glass, stone, and marble, including the hardest and softest 
kinds. 

Green sand iron castings are 6 per cent, stronger than dry, and 30 
percent, stronger than' chilled; but when the castings are chilled 
and annealed, a gain of 115 per cent, is attained over those made in 
green sand. 

Chilling the under side of cast iron very materially increases its 
strength. 

Woods.— Beams of wood, when laid with their annual or annular 
layers vertical, are stronger than when they are laid horizontal, in 
the proportion of 8 to 7. 

Woods are denser at the roots and at the centre of their trunks. 
Their strength decreases with the decrease of their density. 



STRENGTH OF MATERIALS, 



101 



TRANSVERSE 



STRENGTH OF MATERIALS, 
EXPERIMENTS. 



DEDUCED FROM 



Reduced to the uniform Measure of One Inch Square, and one Foot in 
Length; Weight suspended from one End. 



MATERIALS. 



cq 



METALS. 

[means of 
Cast iron, J fourdivi- 
American | sions of 

| grades 

" mean by Maj. Wade 
" West Pt. Foundry, 

extreme 

" English, Low Moor, 

cold blast 

" Ponkey, cold 

" hot blast, mean 

"cold " " 



" Ystalyfera, cold bl't 

" mean of 65 kinds 

"mean of 15 kinds, 
direct from the 
Pig, cold blast 

" planed bar 

"rough bar 

Steel, greatest 

Steel, puddled (per- 
manent bpnd) 

WOODS. 

Ash 

Beech 

Birch 

Chestnut 

Deal, Christiana 

Elm 

Hickory 

Locust..., 

Maple 

Norway pine 

Oak, African 

•' American white 
live... 

" Canadian 

" D 

" Eng 

" " superior 

Pitch pine 



Riga fir 

Teak ., 

White pine. 



Lbs 
507 

622 
738 
772 
681 



> bD 



125 to 160 
155 " 210 
ISO " 240 
192 " 250 
170 " 225 

250 " 325 



140 
190 
165 

170 

165 



641 160 " 215 
518 130 " 170 



American 



White wood. 



534 
1918 



168 

180 
160 
160 
137 
125 
250 
205 
202 
123 
208 
230 
245 
146 
122 
140 
188 
136 
160 

94 
206 

92 
130 
116 



133 

350 



175 

450 



MATERIALS. 



bn . 

.as 



WROUGHT IRON. 



American. 



English. 



170 " 225 

55 
32 
40 
53 
45 
30 
55 
80 
65 
40 
50 
50 
55 
36 
30 
35 
45 
45 
50 
30 
60 
30 
45 
38 



Swedish* 

MIXTURE OF CAST AND 
WROUGHT IRON, etc, 

Cast iron, Blaenavon. 

" 10 perct. ofwr't 

" 30 " 

" 50 " 

" and 2% per ct 
of nickel, mean 

" Stirling, 2d qu. 
" 3d " 

Copper 

Brass 

stones (American). 

Flagging, blue 

Freestone, Conn 



H 

> bD 



Lbs 

700 
650 
600 

400 100 
550 135 



160 to 209 






31. 

13. 

Dorchester 1 10.8 

N. Jersey.. \™ J 

24.' 

18. 
26. 



" N. York 

Granite, blue, coarse.. 
" Quincy, Mass. 
STONES (English). 

Adelaide marble 

Arbroath 

Bangor slate 

Bath 

Caithness, paving, Sc. 

Cornish granite 

Craigleth sandstone... 

Darley sandst., Vict'a 

Kentish rag 

Limestone 

Llangollen slate 

Park Spring sandst'e 

Portland oolite 

Valentia, paving, Irel. 

Welsh, 

Yorkshire, blue 

" landing 

" paving... 



130 
180 
165 " 210 



4.E 

17. 
90. 

5.2 

8, 
22. 
10.7 

1.3 
35.8 
11. 
43. 

4.3 
21.2 
68 5 
157. 
26. 
22.5 
10.4 



145 
175 
230 

185 

180 
154 
125 
55 

58 

10 
4 



s l A 

¥ 

30 

22 

7 

fA 

4 
12 

& 

1.4 

7 
23 
55 

58 



INCREASE IN STRENGTH OF SEVERAL WOODS BY SEASONING. 

Ash 44.7 per cent. I Elm 12.3 percent, I White pine. ...9 percent. 

Beech 61.9 " Oak 26.1 " 



* With 840 lbs. the deflection was 1 inch, and the elasticity of the 
metal destroyed. 



102 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS, 

CONCRETES, CEMENTS, ETC. 



MATERIALS. 


C$'S 


MATERIALS. 


be . 

.25 


concretes (English). 
Fire-brick beam, Portl'd cem't 
" sand, 3 parts; lime, 1 part 
cements (English). 


3.1 

.7 

5.4 
37.5 
10 2 

5. 


bricks (English). 


U P 


Fire-brick 


14 


New brick 


107 


Old brick ... 


9 1 


Portland j 

Sheppy 


Stock-brick, well burned 

" inferior, burned.. 


5.8 
2.5 







TRANSVERSE STRENGTH OF CAST IRON BARS AND OAK BEAMS 
OF VARIOUS FIGURES. 



Reduced to the uniform Measure of One Inch Square of Sectional 
Area, and One Foot in Length. Fixed at one end, Weight suspended 
from the other. 



FORM OF BAR OR 
BEAM. 



CAST iron. 

Square 

Square, diagonal verti- 
cal 

Cylinder 

Hollow cylinder; greater 
diameter twice that of 
lesser 

Rectangular prism, 2 ins. 
deep X X A in. depth 

" Sins.deep X ^in.depth 

"4 " X^ " 



<B ce 



Lbs 
673 

568 
573 

794 

1456 
2392 

2652 



FORM OF BAR OR 
BEAM. 



X 



Equilateral triangle, an 
edge up ^ 

Equilateral triangle, an 
edge down 

2 ins. deep X 2 ins. wide 
X .268 ins. depth 

2 ins. deep X 2 ins. wide 
X .268 ins. depth. 

OAK. 

Equilateral triangle, an 
edge up 

Equilateral triangle, an 
edge down 



■8a> 

CO S 



Lbs 
560 



2068 

565 

114 
130 



STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 



103 



TRANSVEBSE STRENGTH OF SOLID AND HOLLOW CYLINDERS 
OF VARIOUS MATERIALS. 

One foot in length. Fixed at one end; Weight suspended from the 

other. 



MATERIALS. 



WOODS. 

Ash 

"White pine 

METALS. 

Cast iron, cold blast 

STONE WAKE. 

Rolled pipe of fine clay 







43 


c3 


e3 




a 


a 








+5 © 


3® 


a 


c3 


£ c3 




gQ 


2* 


4 


O 

m 


O 




Ins. 


Ins. 


Lbs. 


2. 




685 


2. 


1. 


604 


2. 




772 


1. 




75 


2. 




610 


3. 




12000 


2.87 


1.928 


190 



-d =3 ° fe 
•SPSS,- 

© S3 u, © 

-2 - 1 d .2 Q 



i o.a 



Lbs. 
86 

75 
97 

75 



444 



Brick-work. — A brick arch, having a rise of 2 feet, and a span 
of 15 feet 9 inches, and 2 feet in width, with a depth at its crown of 
4 inches, bore 358,400 lbs. laid along its centre. 

To Compute the Transverse Strength of a Rectangular 
Beam or Bar..— When a Beam or Bar is Fixed at one End, 
and Loaded at the Other. — Rule. — Multiply the value of the 
material in the preceding tables, or as may be ascertained, by the 
breadth and square of the depth in inches, and divide the product 
by the length in feet. 

Note— When the beam is loaded uniformly throughout its length, 
the result must be doubled. 

Example.— What are the weights each that a cast and wrought iron 
bar, 2 inches square and projecting 30 inches in length, will bear with- 
out permanent injury? 

The values for cast and wrought iron in this and the following cal- 
culations are assumed to be 225 and 180. 

Hence 225X2X22=1800, which, -7-2,5=720 lbs.; and 180X2X2 2 =1440, which, 
-i-2.5=576 lbs. 

If the Dimensions op a Beam or Bar are Required to 
Support a Given Weight at its End.— Rule— Divide the pro- 
duct of the weight and the length in feet by the value of the ma- 



* An inch-square batten from the same plank as this specimen broke 
at 139 lbs. 



104 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 

terial, and the quotient will give the product of the breadth and 
the square of the depth. 

Example.— What is the depth of a wrought- iron beam, 2 inches 
broad, necessary to support 576 lbs. suspended at 30 inches from the 
fixed end? 

576X2.5 

=8, which,-^2 ins. for the breadth=4, and *J 4=2 ins., the 

180 
breadth. 

When a Beam or Bar is Fixed at both Ends, and Loaded 
in the Middle. — Rule. — Multiply the value of the material by 6 
times the breadth and the square of the depth in inches, and divide 
the product by the length in feet. 

Note.— When the beam is loaded uniformly throughout its length, 
the result must be doubled. 

Example— What weight will a bar of cast iron, 2 inches square and 5 
feet in length, support in the middle, without permanent injury? 

225X2X6X2 2 =10800, which ,-5-5=2160 lbs. 

Or, if the Dimensions of a Beam or Bar are Required 
to Support a Given Weight in the Middle, Between the 
Fixed Ends. — Rule. — Divide the product of the weight and the 
length in feet by 6 times the value of the material, and the quotient 
will give the product of the breadth and the square of the depth. 

Example.— What dimensions will a cast ir^n square bar 5 feet in 
leugth req uire to support without permanent injury a stress of 2160 lbs? 
2160X5 10S00 

= =8, which,-5-2 ins. for the assumed breadth, =4, and 4 4= 

225X6 1350 
2 ins the depth. 

When the Breadth or Depth is Required.— Rule.— Divide 

the product obtained by the preceding rules by the square of the 
depth, and the quotient is the breadth; or by the breadth, and the 
square root of the quotient is the depth. 

Illustration.— If 128 is the product, and the depth is 8: then 128-5-82 
=2, the breadth. Also, 123-5-2=64, and ^1 64=8, the depth. 

When the Weight is not in the Middle Between the 

Ends. — Rule. — Multiply the value of the material by 3 times the 
length in feet, and the breadth and square of the depth in inches, 
and divide the product by twice the product of the distances of the 
weight, or stress from either end. 

Example.— What is the weight a cast-iron bar, fixed at both ends, 2 
ins. square and 5 feet in length, will bear without permanent injury, 2 
feet from one end ? 

225X3X5X2X22 27000 

= =2250 lbs. 

2X2X3 12 

When a Beam or Bar is Supported at both Ends, and 
Loaded in the Middle.— Rule. — Multiply the value of the ma- 
terial by 4 times the breadth and the square of the depth in inches, 
and divide the product by the length in feet. 



STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 105 

Note.— When the beam is loaded uniformly throughout its length, 
the result must be doubled. 

Example.— What weight will a cast-iron bar, 5 feet between the sup- 
ports, and 2 ins. square, bear in the middle, without permanent in- 
jury? 

225X2X4X22=7200. which, -=-5=1440 lbs. 

Or, if the Dimensions are Kequired to Support a Given 

Weight.— Rule.— Divide the product of the weight and length in 
feet by 3 times the value of the material, and the quotient will give 
the product of the breadth, and the square of the depth. 

When the Weight is in the Middle Between the Sup- 
ports. — Rule. — Multiply the value of the material by the length in 
feet, and the breadth, and the square of the depth in inches, and 
divide the product by the product of the distances of the weight, or 
stress from either support. 

Example.— What weight will a cast-iron bar, 2 ins. square and 5 
feet in length, support without permanent injury, at a distance of 2 
feet from one end, or support ? 

225X5X2X22 9000 

= =1500 lbs. 

2X(5-2) 6 

To Compute the Pressure upon the Ends or upon the 
Supports. — Rule. — 1. Divide the product of the weight and its 
distance from the nearest end or support by the whole length, and 
the quotient will give the pressure upon the end or support farthest 
from the weight. 

2. Divide the product of the weight and its distance from the 
farthest end, or support, by the whole length, and the quotient will 
give the pressure upon the end or support nearest the weight. 

Ex ample.— What is the pressure upon the supports in the case of the 
preceding example ? 
1500X2 1500X2 

=600 lbs. upon support farthest from the weight; =900 lbs. 

5 5 

upon support nearest to the weight. 

When a Beam or Bar, Fixed or Supported at both Ends, 
bears two Weights at Unequal Distances from the Ends. 
— Let m and n represent distances of greatest and least weights 
from their nearest end, W and w greatest and least weights, L 
whole length, I distance from least weight to farthest end, and V 
distance of greatest weight from farthest end. 

mXW iXtv nxw Z'XW 

Then 1 =pressure at w end, and | =pressuro at W 

EL L L 

end. 

Illustration.— A beam 10 feet in length, having both ends fixed in 
a wall, bears two weigbts, viz., one of 1000 lbs. at 4 feet from one of its 
ends, and the other of 2000 lbs. at 4 feet from the olher end ; what is the 
pressure upon each end? 
4X2000 6X1000 4X1000 6X2000 

h =1400 lbs. pressure upon w end, *- =1600 lbs. 

10 10 10 ' 10 

pressure at W end. 
9 



106 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 

When the Plane op the Beam or Bar Projects Oblique- 
ly Upward or Downward.— When Fixed at one End and 
Loaded at the Other. — Rule. — Multiply the value of the mate- 
rial by the breadth and square of the depth in inches, and divide 
the product by the product of the length in feet and the cosine of 
the angle of elevation or depression. 

Note.— When the weight is laid uniformly along its length, the re- 
sult must be doubled. 

Example —What is the weight an ash-beam, 5 feet in length, 3 ins° 
square, and projecting upward at an angle of 7° 15', will bear without 
permanent injury ? 

55X3X32-1485, which,-=-5X cos. 7° 15', =1485-=-5 X. 992=299.39 lbs. 

To Compute the Transverse Strength of Cylinders, El- 
lipses, etc.— When a Cylinder, Kectangle (the diagonal 

BEING VERTICAL,) HOLLOW CYLINDER, OR BEAMS HAVING SEC- 
TIONS op an Ellipse, are either Fixed at one End and 
Loaded at the Other, or Supported at both Ends, the 
Load applied in the Middle, or Between the Supports.— 
Rule. — Proceed in all cases as if for a rectangular beam, taking for 
the breadth and depth, and value of the material, as follows: 

Cylinder, diameter x.6; Rectangle, * side 3 X.7; Hollow Cylinder 
(diam.2— diam. 3 ) x.6; Ellipse, transverse diam. veitical conj. X trans- 
verse2, x.6; and Ellipse, conj. diam. vert, transverse X conj. 2 X.6 of 

value. 

When an Equilaterial Triangle, or T Beam. Rule. — Proceed in all 
cases as if for a rectangular beam, taking the following proportions of 
the value of the material. 

Fixed at one or (Equilateral triangle, edge up, bxd 2 , X-2 of Value. 
», ^ ^ ~{ Equilateral triangle, edge down, bxd 2 , X 34 

both ends. j^ T beam or bar> edge down, &Xd 2 , X.42 

Supported at (Equilateral triangle, edge up, bxd 2 , X.34 



both ends. 



t Equilateral triangle, edge down, bXd%, X.2 
T beam or bar, edge up, &Xd 2 , X.42 



To Compute the Diameter of a Solid Cylinder to Support 
a Given Weight.— When Fixed at one End, and Loaded at 
the Other. — Rule. — Multiply the weight to be supported in 
pounds by the length of the cylinder in feet; divide the product by 
.6 of the value of the material, and the cube root of the quotient 
will give the diameter. 

Note.— When the cylinder is loaded uniformly throughout its length, 
the cube root of half the quotient will give the diameter. 

Example.— What should be the diameter of a cast-iron cylindrical 
beam, 8 ins. in length, to support 15000 lbs. without permanent injury? 

15000X.66 
3 ins.=.66 feet; -74.07; and f 74.07=4.2. 

.6X225 

When Fixed at both Ends, and Loaded in the Middle. — 

Rule.— Multiply the weight to be supported in pounds by the length 

The strength of a Rectangle, the diagonal being vertical, compared 
to that of its circumscribing rectangle, when the direction of the strain 
is oarallel to the side of it, is as 2.45 to 1. 



STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 107 

of the cylinder between the supports in feet; divide the product by 
.6 of the value of the material, and the cube root of \i of the 
quotient will give the diameter. 

Note.— When the cylinder is loaded uniformly along its length, the 
cube root of half the quotient will give the diameter. 

Example.— What should be the diameter of a cast-iron cylinder, 2 
feet between the supports, that will support 19305 lbs. without per» 
manent injury? 

19305X2 286 

=286, and f — =3.61 ins. 

.6X225 6 

When Supported at both Ends, and Loaded in the Mid- 
dle. — Rule. — Multiply the weight to be supported in pounds by 
the length of the cylinder between the supports in feet; divide the 
product by .6 of the value of material, and the cube root of l /£ of the 
quotient will give the diameter. 

Note. — When the cylinder is loaded uniformly along its length, the 
cube root of half quotient will give the diameter. 

Example.— What should be the diameter of a cast-iron cylinder, 2 
feet between the supports, that will support 54000 lbs. without per- 
manent injury ? 

54000X2 800 

=800, and f — =5.85 ins. 

.X225 4 

And what its diameter if loaded uniformly along its length? 
800--2 

=100, and f 100=4.64 ins. 

4 

To Compute the Relative Value of Materials to resist a 
Transverse Strain.— Let V represent this value in a Beam, Bar, 
or Cylinder, one foot in length, and one inch square, side, or in 
diameter; TTthe weight; I the length in feet; b the breadth, and d 
the depth in inches; m the distance of the weight from one end; 
and n the distance of it from the other in feet. 

Note.— In cylinders, for b d 2 put d s . 

IW 

1. Fixed at one End, weight suspended from the other, =V. 

bd 2 
IW 

2. Fixed at both Ends, weight suspended from the middle. =V. 

6bd 2 

3. Supported at both Ends, weight suspended from the middle 
I W 

4.bd£~ 

4. Supported at both Ends, weight suspended at any other point than 

mnW 

the middle, =V. 

Ibd 2 

5. Fixed at both Ends, weight suspended at any other point than 

2 m n W 

the middle, =V. 

31 bd* 



108 STEENGTH OF MATERIALS. 

RELATIVE STRENGTH OP CAST AND MALLE- 
ABLE IRON. 

It has been found, in the course of the experiments made by 
Mr. Hodgkinson and Mr. Fairbairn, that the average strain that 
cast iron will bear in the way of tension, before breaking, is about 
seven tons and a half per square inch ; the weakest, in the course 
of 16 trials on various descriptions, bearing 6 tons, and the strong- 
est 9f tons. The experiments of Telford and Brown show that 
malleable iron will bear, on an average, 27 tons; the weakest 
bearing 24, and the strongest 29 tons. On approaching the break- 
ing point, cast iron may snap in an instant, without any previous 
symptom, while wrought iron begins to stretch, with half its 
breaking weight, and so continues to stretch till it breaks. The 
experiments of Hodgkinson and Fairbairn show also that cast iron 
is capable of sustaining compression to the extent of nearly 50 
tons on the square inch ; the weakest bearing 36^ tons, and the 
strongest 60 tons. In this respect, malleable iron is much inferior 
to cast iron. With 12 tons on the square inch it yields, contracts 
in length, and expands laterally ; though it will bear 27 tons, or 
more, without actual fracture. 

Girders, Beams, Lintels, etc.— The Transverse or Lateral 
Strength of any Girder, Beam Brest-summer, Lintel, etc., is in pro- 
portion to the product of its breadth and the square of its depth, 
and also to the area of its cross-section. 

The best form of section for cast-iron girders or beams, etc., is de- 
duced from the experiments of Mr. E. Hodgkinson, and such as 
have this form of section JL are known as Hodgkinson 's. 

The rule deduced from his experiments directs that the area of 
the bottom flange should be 6 times that of the top flange— flanges 
connected by a thin vertical web, sufficiently rigid, however, to give 
the requisite lateral stiffness, and tapering both upward and down- 
ward from the neutral axis; and in order to set aside the risk of an 
imperfect casting, by any great disproportion between the web and 
the flanges, it should be tapered so as to connect with them, with a 
thickness corresponding to that of the flange. 

As both cast and wrought iron resist crushing or compression 
with a greater force than extension, it follows that the flange of a 
girder or beam of either of these metals, which is subjected to a 
crushing strain, according as the girder or beam is supported at both 



STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 109 

ends, or fixed at one end, should be of less area than the other flange, 
which is subjected, to extension or a tensile strain. 

When girders are subjected to impulses, and are used to sustain 
vibrating loads, as in bridges, etc., the best proportion between the 
top and bottom flange is as 1 to 4: as a general rule, they should be 
as narrow and deep as practicable, and should never be deflected to 
more than one five-hundredth of their length. 

In Public Halls, Churches and Buildings where the weight of peo- 
ple alone is to be provided for, an estimate of 175 lbs. per square 
foot of floor surface is sufficient to provide for the weight of floor- 
ing and the load upon it. 

In churches, buildings, etc., the weight to be provided for should 
be estimated at that which may at any time be placed thereon, or 
which at any time may bear upon any portion of their floors; the 
usual allowance, however, is for a weight of 280 lbs. per square 
foot of floor surface for stores and factories, and 175 lbs. per square 
foot when the weight of people alone is to be provided for. 

In all uses, such as in buildings and bridges, where the structure 
is exposed to sudden impulses, the load or stress to be sustained 
should not exceed from 1-5 to 1-6 of the breaking weight of the 
material employed; but when the load is uniform or the stress quies- 
cent, it may be increased to y 3 and yi of the breaking weight. 

An open-web girder or beam, etc. , is to be estimated in its resist- 
ance on the same principle as if it had a solid web. In cast metals, 
allowance is to be made for the loss of strength due to the unequal 
contraction in cooling of the web and flanges. 

In cast-iron, the mean resistance to crushing or extension is as 4.3 
to 1, and in wrought iron as 1.35 tol; hence the mass of metal below 
the neutral axis will be greatest in these proportions when the stress 
is intermediate between the ends or supports of the girders, etc. 

Wooden girders or beams, when sawed in two or more pieces, and 
have slips set between them, and the whole bolted together, are 
made stiffer by the operation, and are rendered less liable to decay. 

Girders cast with a face up are stronger than when cast on a side, 
in the proportion to 1 to .96, and they are strongest also when cast 
with the bottom flange up. 

The following results of the resistances of metals will show how 
the material should be distributed in order to obtain the maximum 
of strength with the minimum of material: 



Cast-iron 

Copper 

"Wrought- iron. 



To Tension 


To Crushing. 


521.000 

\ 32.000 


90,300 


140,000 


24,250 


117,000 


J 4,5.000 


40,000 


\ 72,000 


83,000 



The best iron has the greatest tensile strength, and the least com- 
pressive or crushing. 



110 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 

The most economical construction of a girder or beam, with refer- 
ence to attaining the greatest strength with the least material, is as 
follows: The outline of the top, bottom and sides should be a curve 
of various forms, according as the breadth or depth throughout is 
equal, and as the girder or beam is loaded only at one end, or in the 
middle, or uniformly throughout. 

To Compute the Dimensions and Form of a Girder or 
Beam. — When a Girder or Beam is Fixed at one End, and 
Loaded at the other. — 1. When the depth is uniform throuyhout 
the entire length. — The section at every point must be in proportion 
to the product of the length, breadth and square of the depth, and 
as the square of the depth is in every point the same, the breadth 
must vary directly as the length; consequently, each side of the 
beam must be a vertical plane, tapering gradually to the end. 

2. When the breadth is uniform throughout the entire length. — The 
depth must vary as the square root of the length; hence the upper 
or lower sides, or both, must be determined by a parabolic curve. 

3. When the section at every point is similar— that is, a Circle, an 
Ellipse, a Square, or a Rectangle, the sides of which bear a fixed pro- 
portion to each other. — The section at every point being a regular 
figure, for a circle, the diameter at every point must be as the cube 
root of the length; and for an ellipse, or a rectangle, the breadth 
and depth must vary as the cube root of the length. 

When a Girder or Beam is Fixed at one End and Loaded 
uniformly throughout its Length. — 1. When the depth is uni- 
form throughout its entire length. — The breadth must increase as the 
square of the length. 

2. When the breadth is uniform throughout its entire length. — The 
depth will vary directly as the length. 



3. When the section at every point is similar, as a Circle, 
Square, and Rectangle. — The section at every point being a regular 
figure, the cube of the depth must be in the ratio of the square of 
the length. 

When a Girder or Beam is supported at both Ends.— 

1. When loaded in the middle. — The constant of the beam, or the 
product of the breadth and the square of the depth, must be in pro- 
portion to the distance from the nearest support; consequently, 
whether the lines forming the beam are straight or curved, they 
meet in the centre, and of course the two halves are alike: the 
beam, therefore, may be considered as one half the length, the 
supported end corresponding with the free end in the case of beams, 
one end being fixed, and the middle of the beams similarly corres- 
ponding with the fixed end. 

2. When the depth is uniform throughout.— -The breadth must be 
in the ratio of the length. 

3. When the breadth is uniform throughout. — The depth will vary 
as the square root of the length. 

4. When the section at every point ts similar, as a Circle, Ellipse, 



STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. Ill 

Square, and Rectangle. — The section at every point being a regular 
Sgure, the cube of the depth will be as the square of the distance 
from the supported end. 

When a Girder or Beam is Supported at both Ends, 
and Loaded uniformly throughout its Length. 1. When 
the depth is uniform. — The breadth will be as the product of the 
length of the beam and the length of it on one side of the given 
point, less the square of the length on one side of the given point. 

2. When the breadth is uniform.— -The depth will be as the square 
root of the product of the length of the beam and the length of it on 
one side of the given point, less the square of the length on one side 
of the given point. 

3. When the section at every point is similar, as a Circle, Ellipse, 
Square, aud Rectangle. — The section at every point being a regular 
figure, the eube of the depth will be as the product of the length of 
the beam and the length of it on one side of the given point, less the 
square of the length on one side of the given point. 

G-eneral Deductions prom the Experiments of Stephen- 
son, Fairbairn, Cubitt, Hughes, etc. Fairbairn shows in his 
experiments that with a stress of about 12,320 lbs. per square inch 
on cast iron, and 28,000 lbs. on wrought iron, the sets and elonga- 
tions are nearly equal to each other. 

A cast-iron beam will be bent to one-third of its breaking weight 
if the load is laid on gradually; and one-sixth of it, if laid on at 
once, will produce the same effect, if the weight of the beam is 
small compared with the weight laid on. Hence beams of cast iron 
should be made capable of bearing more than 6 times the greatest 
weight which will be laid upon them. 

In wrought-iron beams, if fixed at both ends, the upper flange 
should be larger than the lower, in the ratio of 1.35 to 1~ 

The breaking weights in similar beams are to each other as the 
squares of their like linear dimensions; that is, the breaking weights 
of beams are computed by multiplying together the area of their 
section, their depth, and a constant, determined from experiments 
on beams of the particular form under investigation, and dividing 
the product by the distance between the supports. 

Cast and wrought iron beams, having similar resistances, have 
weights nearly as 2.41 to 1. 

The range of the comparative strength of girders of the same 
depth, having a top and bottom flange, and those having bottom 
flange alone, is from having but a little area of bottom flange to a 
large proportion of it, from K to )<£ greater strength. 

A box beam or girder, constructed of plates of wrought iron, 
compared to a single rib and flanged beam i, of equal weights, has 
a resistance as 100 to 93. 

The resistance of beams or girders, where the depth is greater 
than their breadth, when supported at top, is much increased. In 
some cases the difference is fully one third 

When a beam is of equal thickness throughout its depth, the 



112 STEENGTH OF MATERIALS. 

curve should be an ellipse to enable it to support a uniform load with 
equal resistance in every part; and if the beam is an open one, the 
curve of equilibrium, for a uniform load, should be that of a para- 
bola. Hence, when the middle portion is not wholly removed, the 
curve should be a compound of an ellipse and a parabola, approach- 
ing nearer to the latter as the middle part is decreased. 

Girders of cast iron, up to a span of 40 feet, involve a less cost 
than of wrought iron. 

Cast iron beams and girders should not be loaded to exceed one- 
fifth of their breaking weight; and when the strain is attended with 
concussion and vibration, this proportion must be increased. 

Simple cast iron girders may be made 50 feet in length, and the 
best form is that of Hodgkinson: when subjected to a fixed load, 
the flange should be as 1 to 6, and when to a concussion, etc., as 1 to 4. 

The forms of girders for spaces exceeding the limit of those of 
simple cast iron are various; the principal ones adopted are those of 
the straight or arched cast iron girders in separate pieces, and bolted 
together— the Trussed, the Bow-string, and the wrought iron Box 
and Tubular. 

A Straight or Arched Girder is formed of separate castings, and is 
entirely dependent upon the bolts of connection for its strength. 

A Tiiissed or Bow-string Girder is made of one or more castings 
to a single piece, and its strength depends, other than upon the 
depth or area of it, upon the proper adjustment of the tension, or 
the initial strain, upon the wrought iron truss. 

A Box or Tubular Girder is made of wrought iron, and is best 
constructed with cast iron tops, in order to resist compression: this 
form of girder is best adapted to afford lateral stiffness. 

Floor Beams, G-irders, etc. — The condition of the stress borne 
by a floor beam is that of a beam supported at both ends and 
uniformly loaded ; but from the irregularity in its loading and un- 
loading, and from the necessity of its possessing great rigidity, it is 
impracticable to estimate its capacity other than as a beam having 
the weight borne upon the middle of its length. 

To Compute the Depth of a Floor Beam.— When the 
Length and Breadth are given, and the Distance between 
the Centres op the Beam is One Foot.— Rule.— Divide the 
product of the square of the length in feet and the weight to be 
borne in pounds per square foot of floor, by the product of 4 times 
the breadth and the value of the material from the Table (page 208, ) 
and the square root of the quotient will give the depth of the beam 
in inches. 

Example.— A white pine beam is 2 ins. wide, and 12 feet in length be- 
tween the supports ; what should be the depth of it to support a weight 
of 175 lbs. per square foot ? 

122X175 

=105, and J 105=10.25 ins. 

2X4X30 

When the Distance between the Centres op the Beam 
is greater or less than One Foot. — Rule. — Divide the product 



STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 113 

of the square of the depth for a beam, when the distance between the 
centres is one foot, by the distance given in inches by 12, and the 
square root of the quotient will give the depth of the beam in inches. 
Example. — Assume the beam in the preceding case to be set 15 ins. 
from the centres of its adjoining beams ; what should be its depth. ? 
10.252X15 

=131.25, and J 131.25=11.45 ins. 

12 

Header and Trimmer Beams. — The conditions of the stress 

borne or to be provided for by them are as follows: 

Reader or Trimmer beams support y 2 of the weight of and upon 
the tail beams inserted into or attached to them. 

Trimmer Bsams support, in addition to that borne by them 
directly as a floor beam, each y 2 the weight on the headers. 

The stress, therefore, upon a header is due directly to its length, 
or the number of tail beams it supports; and the stress upon the 
trimmer beams is that of their own stress as a floor beam, and y 2 of 
the weight upon the header supported by them. 

Not k.— The distance between the support of the trimmer-beams and 
the point of i onnection with the header does not in anywise affect the 
stress upon the trimmer-beams; for in just proportion as this distance 
is increased, and the stress upon them consequently increased, by t lie 
suspension of the header from them nearer to the middle of their 
length, so is the area of their surface supported by the header reduced, 
and, consequently, the load to be borne by it. 

Girder.— The condition of the stress borne by a Girder* is that 
of a beam fixed or supported at both ends, as the case may be, sup- 
porting the weight borne by all of the beams resting thereon, at 
the points at which they rest; and its dimensions must be propor- 
tionate to the stress upon it, and the distance between its points of 
insertion or support. 

IiiLiUSTRATioN.— It is required to determine the dimensions of a 
pitch-nine girder, 15 feet between its several points of supports, to sup- 
port the ends of two lengths of beams each 20 feet in length, having a 
s merincumbent weight, including that of the beams, of 200 ibs. per 
square foot. 

The condition of the stress upon puch a girder would be that of a 
number of beams, 40 feet in length (20x2), supported at both ends, *nd 
loaded uniformly along their length, witn 200 lbs. upon every super- 
ficial foot of their area. 

Hence the amount of the weight to be borne is determined by 20X2X 
15X200=120,000 )bs.= the product of twice the length of abeam, the dis- 
tance between the supports of the girder and the weight borne per 
square foot of area; and the resistance to be provided for is that to be 
borne by a beam, 15 feet in length, fix^d at both ends, and supporting 
120,000 lbs. uniformly laid along its length, equal to 60,000 lbs. supported 
at its centre. 

15X60,000 

Consequently, = 3000=quotient of the product of the length 

6X50 
and weight -f- the product of 6 times the value of the material: and 

3000 
assuming the girder to be 12 inches wide, then J =15.8 ins. 

* Vhen a girder has four or more supports, i*s condition as regards a 
stress upon its middle is that of a beam fixed at both ends. 



114 



MEASURES AND WEIGHTS, 



THE NEW, OR METRIC SYSTEM OF MEASURES AND WEIGHTS. 
Measures of Length. 

New System. (U. S. inches. Prior to Law of 1866.) 



1 millimetre = .0393707 inches. 
1 centimetre == .3937079 " 
1 decimetre =3.9370797 " 
1 metre = 39.370797 " 



1 decametre = 32.80899 feet. 
1 hectometre = 328.0899 " 
1 kilometre =1093.633 yards. 
1 myriametre= 6.213825 miles. 



Note. — In the new French system, the values of the base of each measure — viz., 
Metre, Litre, Stere, Are, and Gramme — are decreased or increased by the following 
words prefixed to them. Thus, 



Milli expresses the 1000th part. 
Centi " 100th " 

Deci " 10th " 



Deca expresses 10 times the value. 
Hecto " 100 " 

Kilo " 1000 " 



Myrio expresses 10000 times the value. 

Measures of Surface. 

New System. 

1 are = 1 square decametre = 1076.4309 square feet. 
= 100 square metres — 119.6033 square yards. 
1 decare = 10 ares. | 1 hectare=100 ares=2.4711 acres. 

1 square metre=1550.0599 square inches, or 10.7643 sq. feet. 
1 centiare=10.7643 square feet. | 1 deciare = 11.9603 square yards. 

Measures of Volume. 

New System. 

Decilitre = 6.1027 U. S. cubic inches. 

Litre =1 cubic decimetre, or 61.0271 cubic inches = 

1.05675 U. S. quarts. 

Decalitre =610.271 cubic inches. 

Kilolitre = 35.3166 cubic feet. 

Decistere = 3.53166 cubic feet. 

Stere (a cubic metre) = 35.3166 cubic feet = 61027.0963 cubic inch. 
Decastere =353.166 " 

Measures of "Weight. 

New System. 



Milligramme = .01543 troy grs. 
Centigramme = .15433 " 
Decigramme =1.54331 " 



Gramme = 15.43316tr.gr. 

Decagramme = 154.33159 " 
Hectogramme=1543.3159 " 



1 kilogramme = 3.204737 lbs. avoirdupois. 

1 myriagramme =22.04737 " 

1 millier = 1000 kilogrammes = 1 ton sea weight. 

453.5688 grammes = .4535688 kilogramme = 1 pound avoirdupois. 
372.2223 " =.3732223 " = 1 pound troy. 






_ 



STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 



115 



Transverse Strength of Cast-iron Girders and Beams, Deduced 
from Experiments in England and America. 



Reduced to a Uniform Measure of One Inch in Depth, One Foot in Length, 


Supported at both Ends ; the Stress or Weight applied in the Middle. 




Flanges. 


'si 
el 


<x> 

1 

3 

o 


U 

s 

o 

.g 


a 
o 

CO 

^ c 


to 

"a> .fi 
S a, 


OQ O 

Cfi 


.2 (> 


SECTION OF 

GIRDER OR 

BEAM. 




a 

o 


rt II 
IN* 

0) -3 




o 


o 
pq 

Sq. Ins. 


2 


"S. 
P 


C3 

<v 

U 


c8 .£ 
93 


P3 


<x> o 
-fa a 

CG 1-1 


3 60 




Sq. Ins. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


Sq.I. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Eq. area] 




















Es^a of flange 1 
T at top & f 
**a bottom, J 


1.75X-42 


1.77X-39 










• 






=.735 


=.69 


.29 


5.125 


1.77 




















2.82 


30150 


10768 


2100 


H do * { 

Area] 


2.02X-515 


2.02X-515 
















=1.045 


=1.045 


.51* 


2.02 


2.02 


2.59 


10276 


3952 


1900 




















tm of sec. 




















1 of top [ 


2.23X-31 


6.67 X- 66 
















.JL^&bot. 


=.72 


=4.4 


.266 


5.125 


6.67 


6.23 


117450 


18852 


3650 


EZsto lto6,J 




















1 




5 X.3 
=1.5 


.365 
.365 


1.56 
1.56 


5. 

5. 


1.96 
1.96 


7280 
2366 


3714 
1213 




5 X.3 
=1.5 


2350 

760 




23.9X3.12 




















=74.56 
1.5X.5 


3.3 


36.1 


23.9 


183.5 


8066240 


43958 


1200 


r-JL, 1 


5 X-5 




1 { 




=.25 


=.75 


.5 


4.1 


1.5 


1. 


19980 


19980 


5000 


T { 


1.5X.5 


.5X-5 
















=.75 


=.25 


.5 


4-t 


1.5 


1. 


7252 


7252 


1800 


E^;|^3 •< 


4 X2 

= 8 




2. 


4. 


4. 


12. 


33600 


2800 


700 






T ( 


5.1X 2.33 


12.1X2.07 
















^Jl^ 1 


= 11.88 


=25.04 


2.08 


30.5 


11.1 


90.8 


4793800 


52795 


1700 


| Rectangu- i 
1 lar Prism, J 






.994 


2.012 


2.994 


2.025 


9440 


4662 


2350 








i 


1.005X-98 


1.005X.99 


1.005 


2.51 


1.005 


1.98 


12340 


6232 


2450 


.995X1-01 


.995X 1 


.995 


3.01 


.995 


2. 


15420 


7710 


2550 


fi « 


1.005 X- 98 


1.005X-99 


1.005 


.4 


1.005 


1.98 


21765 


10992 


2700 


i a 


.771X1.51 


.771X1.5 


.771 


4.04 


.771 


2.322 


25705 


11070 


2750 


y §, 


1.507 X. 74 


1.507X.74 


1.507 


4.04 


1.507 


2.23 


25735 


11540 


2850 


o 


1.525X.78 


1.525X.78 


1.525 


4.07 


1.525 


2.35 


30000 


12689 


3100 


___ Square "" 




















WM Prism, 




















w Stress 






1.02 


1.01 


1.02 


1.032 


2635 


2552 


2500 


jobs, at Side, 




















iljl Cylinder, ... 






1.122 
.4431 


1.122 
1.443 


1.122 
1.443 


.989 2370 
1.041 2269 


2396 
2182 


2150 


^A. Square 1 

^1|P Prism, f 

^ angle up. ) 






1500 



















* Horizontal web. f Depth of opening 3 inches. 

X A representing area of section, d the depth in inches, 1 the length in feet, and W 
the breaking weight in pounds. 



116 



STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 



CRUSHING STRENGTH OF VARIOUS MATERIALS, DEDUCED 
FROM EXPERIMENTS IN ENGLAND AND AMERICA. 

Reduced to a uniform Measure of One Square Inch. 



FIGURES AND MATERIAL. fl-S 



Prisms. 

CAST IRON. 

American, gun-metal 

" mean 

English, Low Moor, No. 1 

No. 2 

Clyde, No. 3 

" Stirling, mean of all 
" " extreme 

WROUGHT IRON. 

American 

" mean 

English , \ 



VARIOUS METALS. 

Fine brass 

Cast copper 

Cast steel 

Cast tin 

Lead 

WOODS. 

Ash 

Beech 

Birch 

Box 

Cedar, red , 

Chestnut 

Elm 

Hickory, white 

Locust 

Mahogany, Spanish 

Maple 

Oak, American white.... 

" Canadian white 

live 



" English 

Pine, pitch 

" white 

" yellow 

Spruce, white 

Sycamore 

Teak 

Walnut 

STONES CEMENTS, ETC. 

Brick, hard 



common. 



62450 



FIGURES AND MATERIAL. 



■Si? 



6663 



2000 

4368 
4000 



Clay, fine, baked 

" " rolled and baked 

Common brick masonry j 

Crown glass 

Craigleith Limestone, Eng'h < 

Aberdeen granite, " j 

Arbroath " 

Caithness " 

Limestone " 

Portland " { 

Portland cement " 

" mean " 

Portland oolite " 

Fire-brick, Stourbridge 

Freestone, Bellville 



Caen 

Connecticut 

" Dorchester 

•« Little Falls 

Gneiss 

Granite, Patapsco 

" Quincy 

Marble, Baltimore, large 

64 small 

East Chester* 

Hastings, N. Y 

Italian.. 

Lee, Mass 

Montgomery co., Pa... 



Stockbridgef. 



Symington, large 

finecrvstal 

strata horizontal 

strata vertical 

Mortar, good 

" common 

Normandy Caen 

Portland cement, 1; sand, 1 

Roman " 

Sandstone, Adelaide 

Acquia CreekJ 

Senecag 

Stock brick 

Sydney " 



Lbs. 
175 

400 

800 

500 

31000 

7300 

2185 

8400 

10363 

7884 

6493 

3065 

15583 

4570 

15000 

8200 

3850 

1717 

3522 

1088 

3319 

3069 

2991 

19600 

5340 

15300 

8057 

18061 

23917 

18941 

12624 

22702 

8950 

10382 

11156 

18248 

10124 

9324 

240 

120 

1543 

1280 

342 

2800 

5340 

10762 

2177 

2228 



* Same as that of the General Post Office, Washington. 
+ Same as that of the City Hall. New York. 

% Same as that of the Capitol, Treasury Department, and Patent 
Office, Washington, D. C. 
g Same as that of the Smithsonian Institute. 
IJ Same as that of the National Washington Monument. 



STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 117 

CRUSHING STRENGTH. 

The crushing strength of any body is in proportion to the area of 
its section, and inversely as its height. In tapered columns, the 
strength is determined by the least diameter. 

When the height of a prism or column is not 5 times its side or 
diameter, the crushing strength is at its maximum. 

Experiments upon cast-iron bars give a crushing stress of 5,000 lbs 
per square inch of section as just sufficient to overcome the elas- 
ticity of the metal; and when the height exceeds 3 times the diam« 
eter, the iron yields by bending. 

When it is 10 times, it is reduced as 1 to 1.75; when it is 15 times, 
it is reduced as 1 to 2: when it is 20 times, it is reduced as 1 to 3; 
when it is 30 times, it is reduced as 1 to 4; and when it is 40 times, 
it is reduced as 1 to 6. 

The experiment of Mr. Hodgkinson have determined that an in- 
crease of strength of about % of the breaking weight is obtained 
by enlarging the diameter of the column in its middle. 

In cast iron columns of the same thickness, the strength is inversely 
proportional to the l 'i power of the length nearly. Thus in solid 

d3-6 

columns, the ends being fiat, the strength is as , I representing the 

pi 
length, and d the diameter. 

Hollow columns, having a greater diameter at one end than the 
other, have not any additional strength over that of uniform cylin- 
drical columns. 

Experiment upon wrought iron give a mean crushing stress of 
74,250 lbs. per square inch. Cast iron is decreased in length nearly 
double what wrought iron is by the same weight; but wrought iron 
will sink to any degree with little more than 26680 lbs. per square 
inch, while cast iron will bear 97500 lbs. to produce the same effect. 

A wrought bar will bear a compression of 1-863 of its length, with- 
out its utility being destroyed. 

With cast iron, a pressure beyond 26680 lbs. per square inch is of 
little, if any, use in practice. 

For equal decrements of length, wrought iron will sustain double 
the pressure of cast iron. 

Glass and the hardest stones have a crushing strength from 7 to 9 
times greater than tensile; hence an approximate value of their 
crushing strength may be obtained from their tensile, and contrari- 
wise. 

Various experiments show that the power of stones, &c. , to resist 
the effects of freezing is a fair exponent of that to resist compres- 
sion. 



118 DAMS AND TUNNELS. 

WROUGHT IRON PLATES, CYLINDRICAL TUBES. 



LENGTH. 



PLATES. 

10 feet 

10 " 

HOLLOW CYLINDERS. 

10 feet 

10 " 

10 " 

RECTANGULAR TUBES. 

10 1 
10 

10 Hap-riveted 

10 
10 ] 

10 flap-riveted, and two internal 
\ diaphragm plates 





w 






o> 




,d 


id 






M 




73 


o 


3 








£ 


' A 


< 


Ins. 


Ins. 


Ins 


2.98 


.497 


1,48 


3.01 


.766 


2.3 


External. 


Internal. 




1.495 


1.292 


.444 


2.49 


2.275 


.804 


6.366 


6.106 


2.547 


4.1 


4.1 


.504 


4.1 


4.1 


1.02 


4.25 


4.25 


2,895 


8.4 


4.25 


6.89 


8.1 


8.1 


2.07 


8.1 


8.1 


3.551 



be 

VA 

5£ 

Lbs. 

815 
3379 

14661 

29779 
35886 



19261 
21585 
29981 
132760 

19800 



EXPANSION OR DILATATION OF SOLIDS.— (Faraday. 

Lineal. 
At 212°, the length of the bar at 32°=1. 



Bismuth 


. 1.0013908 
.. 10019062 


Gold.. ... 


.. 1.001495 
.. 1.0007894 


Silver 


.. 1.00201 




Slate .... 


1 0011436 


Cast iron.... 


. 1.0011112 


Lead 


.. 1.0028426 


Stock bricK 


. 1.0005502 


Cement 


.. 1.001435 


Marble 


... 1.0011041 


Steel 


.. 1.0011899 


Copper 


.. 1.001435 


Pavements... 


.. 1.0008985 


Tin 


.. 1.002 


Fire-brick . 


. 1.0004928 


Platinum 


.. 1.0009542 


Wrought iron.. 


. 1.0012575 


Glass 


.. 1.0008545 


Sandstone ... 


.. 1.001743 


Zinc 


.. 1.002042 



DAMS AND TUNNELS. 

DAMS (Earthwork.) 



Width at top in high dams from 7 to 20 ft. 
Width at top in low dams = height. 



Breast slopes =3tol 

Back slopes = 2 to 1 



Height above surface of water not less than 3.5 feet. 

PROPORTION OF LABORERS IN BANK, FILLERS, AND WHEELERS 
IN DIFFERENT SOILS, WHEELERS BEING ESTIMATED FOR A 
DISTANCE OF FIFTY YARDS. 



In loose earth, sand.etc 

In compact earth 

In marl 













Hh 






o> 










u 





-u 


<s 


<u 





J-H 


A 


£ 


* 


1 


i 


1 


1 


2 


2 


1 


2 


2 



In hard clay 

In compact gravel 
In rock 



A 
1 



STRENGTH OF ICE 



119 



MASONRY. 

Width at bottom = .7 height; at middle = .5 height ; and at top = .3 
height. 

TUNNELS.— (From Actual Practice in Brickwork.) 



PURPOSE. 


a 
fe o 




a.- 


e3 

f * 

ftfl 

£ S 






Feet. Ins. 
16 2 

21 6 

22 3 

26 6 

27 6 
30 

30 6 

36 

39 


Feet. Ins. 
17 
20 

37 6 
27 
27 
30 
30 
36 
35 6 


Feet. Ins. 
1 3 




Clay 


1 6 


Thames Tunnel.... 


Clay 


2 6 




Chalk 


1 6 






1 10U 

1 log 

2 3 


it 


Shale 


it 




Canal 


Freestone 

Chalk and earth.. 


2 3 
1 2 



WETO-MILLS.— (Molesworth.) 

To Compute the Angles of the Sails. 

18eJ2 
23° = angle of the sail with the plane of motion at any part of 

r 2 

the sail ; r representing radius of sail in feet, and d distance of any part 
of the sail from the axis. 

Axis of Shaft of Wind-mill with Horizon. 

8° upon level ground. 

Breadth of whip at axis, i length of whip. 

Depth " " ^ 

Breadth of whip at end, i " 

Depth •■ " i ' 

Width of sail " i 

Divided by the whip in the proportion of 5 to 3, the narrowest por« 
tion being nearest to the wind. 

Width of sail at axis, i length of whip; distance of sail from axis, 1 
length of whip. 

Cross-bars from 16 to 18 inches apart. 

STRENGTH OF ICE. 



Thickness, 2 ins. will bear infantry. 

4 " cavalry or light guns. 

6 " heavy field guns. 

" 8 " upon sledges, a weight not exceeding 1000 

lbs. per square foot. 



120 SHRINKAGE OF CASTINGS. 

STIFFNESS OF BEAMS. 

Stiffness of Beams.— (Tredgold.) 

PWC pw c 

f = d; = 6; b representing breadth, and d depth in inches 

b d* 

I length in feet, and W load in lbs. upon the middle. 

C = Pine, .01; Ash, .01; Beech, .013; Elm, .015; Oak, .13; Teak, .008. 

When the beam is uniformly loaded, put .625 W instead of W. 

Resistance to Detrusion.— When one beam is let in, at an in' 
clination to the depth of another, so as to bear in the direction of 
the fibres of the beam that is cut, the depth of the cut at right angle* 
to the fibres should not be more than one-fifth of the length "of the 
piece, the fibres of which, by their cohesion, resist the pressure. 

To Compute the Length necessary to resist a given Hori- 
zontal Thrust, as in the Case of a Rafter let into a Tie- 
Beam. 

4T 

— = I; b representing the breadth of the beam in inches, T the hori- 

bc 
rontal thrust in lbs., c the cohesive resistance of the material in lbs. 
per square incn, and I tne length in mcnes. 

REVOLTING DISC. 

To Compute the Power.— Eule. Multiply one-half the weight 
of the disc by the height due to the velocity of its circumference in 
feet per second. 

Example.— A grind-stone 3% feet in diameter, weighing 2000 lbs., is 
required to make 362% revolutions per minute; wnat power must be 
communicated to it? 

Circum. of 3% =10.6 feet, which X 362.25 and -j- 60 = 64 feet per second. 
Then 2000 -- 2 X 64 = 64000 lbs. raised 1 foot. 

Note.— If the revolving disc is not an entire or solid wheel, being a 
ring orannulus.it must first be computed as if an entire disc, and then 
the portion wanting must be computed and deducted. 

Power Concentrated in Moving Bodies.— Simple power is 
force multiplied by its velocity. Power concentrated in a moving 
body is the weight of the body multiplied by the square of its velocity; 
and the product divided by the accsleratrix, or the power concentrated 
in a moving body is equal to the power expended in generating the 
motion. 

SHRINKAGE OF CASTINGS. 

In. 

Iron, small cylinders ' = T ^- per foot. 

" Pipes...., = i " 

" Girders, beams, etc = I in 15 ins. 

" Large cylinders, the contraction of diameter at 

top = T ^ per foot. 

" Ditto at bottom = fa per foot. 

11 Ditto in length = f in 16 ins. 



VERNIER SCALE, 



121 



Brass, thin = 1 in 9 ins. 

Brass, thick = -|- in 10 ins. 

Zinc = T 5 Q in afoot. 

Lead = T \ in afoot. 

Copper = y\- in afoot. 

Bismuth = / z in afooto 



VEEOTER SCALE. 



The Vernier Scale is ll-10ths, divided into 10 equal parts; so that 
it divides a scale of lOths into lOOths when the hues meet in the two 
scales. 



COMPARATIVE WEIGHT OF TIMBER IN A GREEN AND 
SEASONED STATE. 



TIMBER. 


Weight of 
Green. 


a Cub. Ft. 
Seasoned. 


TIMBER. 


Weight ol 
Green. 


a Cub. Ft. 
Seasoned, 


Amer. Pine 

Ash 


Lb*. Oz. 

44.12 
58. 3 
60. 


Lbs. Oz. 
30.11 
50. 
536 


Cedar 

English Oak 
Riga Fir 


Lbs. Oz. 
32. 
71.10 
48.12 


Lbs. Oz. 

284 
438 




358 













To Compute the Weight of Cast Metal by the "Weight of 
the Pattern. — When the Pattern is of White Pine. — Rule. 
Multiply the weight of the pattern in pounds by the following mul- 
tiplier, and the product will give the weight of the casting: 

Iron, 14; Brass, 15; Lead, 22; Tin, 14; Zinc, 13.5. 

10 



122 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS 



STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 

Bar of Iron. — The average breaking weight of a Bar of 
Wrought Iron, 1 inch square, is 25 tons; its elasticity is destroyed, 
however, by about two-fifths of that weight, or 10 tons. It is ex- 
tended, within the limits of its elasticity, -000096, or one-ten- 
thousandth part of an inch for every ton of strain per square inch 
of sectional area. Hence, the greatest constant load should never 
exceed one-fifth of its breaking weight, or 5 tons for every square 
inch of sectional area. 

The lateral strength of wrought iron, as compared with cast iron, 
is as 14 to 9. Mr. Barlow finds that wrought iron bars, 3 inches 
deep, 1£ inches thick, and 33 inches between the supports, will 
carry 4-J tons. 

Bridges. — The greatest extraneous load on a square foot is 
about 120 pounds. 

Floors. — The least load on a square foot is about 160 pounds. 

Roofs. — Covered with slate, on a square foot, 51£ pounds. 

Beams. — When a beam is supported in the middle and loaded 
at each end, it will bear the same weight as when supported at 
both ends and loaded in the middle ; that is, each end will bear 
half the weight. 

Cast Iron Beams should not be loaded to more than one-fifth of 
their ultimate strength. 

The strength of similar beams varies inversely as their lengths; 
that is, if a beam 10 feet long will support 1000 pounds, a similar 
beam 20 feet long would support only 500 pounds. 

A beam supported at one end will sustain only one-fourth part 
the weight which it would if supported at both ends. 

When a beam is fixed at both ends, and loaded in the middle, it 
will bear one-half more than it will when loose at both ends. 
When the beam is loaded uniformly throughout it will bear double. 
When the beam is fixed at both ends, and loaded uniformly, it will 
bear triple the weight. 

In any beam standing obliquely, or in a sloping direction, its 
strength or strain will be equal to that of a beam of the same 
breadth, thickness, and material, but only of the length of the 
horizontal distance between the points of support. 

In the construction of beams, it is necessary that their form 
should be such that they will be equally strong throughout. If a 
beam be fixed at one end, and loaded at the other, and the breadth 
uniform throughout its length, then, that the beam may be equally 
strong throughout, its form must be that of a parabola. This 
form is generally used in the beams of steam-engines. 

When a beam is regularly diminished towards the points that 
are least strained, so that all the sections are similar figures, 
whether it be supported at each end and loaded in the middle, or 
supported in the middle and loaded at each end, the outline should 
be a cubic parabola. 



■U 



STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 123 

When a beam is supported at both ends, and is of the same 
breadth throughout, then, if the load be uniformly distributed 
throughout the length of the beam, the line bounding the com- 
pressed side should be a semi-ellipse. 

The same form should be made use of for the rails of a wagon- 
way, where they have to resist the pressure of a load rolling over 
them. 

Similar plates of the same thickness, either supported at the 
ends or all round, will carry the same weight either uniformly 
distributed or laid on similar points, whatever be their extent. 

The lateral strength of any beam, or bar of wood, stone, metal, 
etc., is in proportion to its breadth multiplied by its depth 2 . In 
square beams the lateral strengths are in proportion to the cubes 
of the sides, and in general of like-sided beams as the cubes of 
the similar sides of the section. 

The lateral strength of any beam or bar, one end being fixed 
in the wall and the other projecting, is inversely as the distance 
of the weight from the section acted upon ; and the strain upon any 
section is directly as the distance of the weight from that section. 

The absolute strength of ropes or bars, pulled lengthwise, is in 
proportion to the squares of their diameters. All cylindrical or 
prismatic rods are equally strong in every part, if they are equally 
thick, but if not they will break where the thickness is least. 

The strength of a tube, or hollow cylinder, is to the strength of 
a solid one as the difference between the fourth powers of the 
exterior and interior diameters of the tube, divided by the exte- 
rior diameter, is to the cube of the diameter of a solid cylinder, 
— the quantity of matter in each being the same. Hence, from 
this it will be found, that a hollow cylinder is one-half stronger 
than a solid one having the same weight of material. 

The strength of a column to resist being crushed is directly as 
the square of the diameter, provided it is not so long as to have 
a chance of bending. This is true in metals or stone, but in 
timber the proportion is rather greater than the square. 

Models Proportioned to Machines. 

The relation of models to machines, as to strength, deserves the 
particular attention of the mechanic. A model may be perfectly 
proportioned in all its parts as a model, yet the machine, if con- 
structed in the same proportion, will not be sufficiently strong in 
every part ; hence, particular attention should be paid to the kind 
of strain the different parts are exposed to ; and from the state- 
ments which follow, the proper dimensions of the structure may 
be determined. 

If the strain to draw asunder in the model be 1, and if the 
structure is 8 times larger than the model, then the stress in the 
structure will be 8 3 equal 512. If the structure is 6 times as large 
as the model, then the stress on the structure will be 6 3 equal 216, 
and so on ; therefore, the structure will be much less firm than 



124 



MANILLA ROPE. 



the model ; and this the more, as the structure is cube time« 
greater than the model. If we wish to determine the greatest 
size we can make a machine of which we have a model, we have, 

The greatest weight which the beam of the model can bear, 
divided by the weight which it actually sustains equal a quotient 
which, when multiplied by the size of the beam in the model, will 
give the greatest possible size of the same beam in the structure. 

Example. — If a beam in the model be 7 inches long, and bear 
a weight of 4 lbs., but is capable of bearing a weight of 26 lbs., 
what is the greatest length which we can make the corresponding 
beam in the structure ? Here 

26 ~ 4 = 6-5, therefore, 6-5X7 = 45-5 inches. 

The strength to resist crushing increases from a model to a 
structure in proportion to their size, but, as above, the strain in- 
creases as the cubes ; wherefore, in this case, also, the model will 
be stronger than the machine, and the greatest size of the struc- 
ture will be found by employing the square root of the quotient 
in the last rule, instead of the quotient itself; thus, 

If the greatest weight which the column in a model can bear is 
3 cwt., and if it actually bears 28 lbs., then, if the column be 18 
inches high, we have 

'—) = 3-464 ; wherefore 3-464 X 18 = 62-362 
28 / 

inches, the length of the column in the structure. 



s/G 



TABLE OF MANILLA ROPE. 



Diam. 


Circ. 
Ins. 


Wt. per 

foot, 
lbs. 


Breaking load. 


Diam. 
Ins. 

1-91 


Circ. 
Ins. 

6 


Wt. per 
foot, 
lbs. 


Breaking load. 


Ins. 


Tons. 


lbs. 


Tons. 
11-4 


lbs. 


•239 


* 


•019 


•25 


560 


1-19 


25,536 


•318 


1 


•033 


•35 


784 


2-07 


6£ 


1-39 


13-0 


29,120 


•477 


u 


•074 


•70 


1,568 


2-23 


7 


1-62 


14-6 


32,704 


•636 


2 


•132 


1-21 


2,733 


2-39 


7* 


1-86 


16-2 


36,288 


•795 


2* 


•206 


1-92 


4,278 


2-55 


8 


2-11 


17-8 


39,872 


•955 


3 


•297 


2-73 


6,115 


2-86 


9 


2-67 


21-0 


47,040 


1-11 


3* 


•404 


3-81 


8,534 


3-18 


10 


3-30 


24-2 


54,208 


1-27 


4 


•528 


5-16 


11,558 


3-50 


11 


3-99 


27-4 


61,376 


1-43 


u 


•668 


6-60 


14,784 


3-82 


12 


4-75 


30-6 


68,544 


1-69 


5 


•825 


8-20 


18,368 


4-14 


13 


5-58 


33-8 


75,712 


1-75 


H 


•998 


9-80 


21,952 


4-45 


14 


6-47 


37-0 


82,880 



The strength of Manilla ropes, like that of bar iron, is 
very variable ; and so with hemp ones. The above table supposes 
an average quality. Ropes of good Italian hemp are considerably 
stronger than Manilla ; but their cost excludes them from gen- 
eral use. 



STRENGTH OF WIRE ROPE. 



125 



Strength of Cordage. — Four-strand cordage is of considera- 
bly less strength than three-strand, upon account of the additional 
hard or twist it receives in the making, four-strand shroud being 
stronger than four-strand cable. One-thirteenth of the number of 
the yarns that compose a four-strand rope is a base called a heart, 
and forms a centre to the rope. The strands being wound spirally 
round the heart, it becomes a radius, and when the rope is put upon 
a breaking strain the heart will be the first to break, and where the 
fracture takes place the strands lose their support and must break. 

TABLES OF IKON WIEE ROPE, MANUFACTURED BY JOHN A. 
ROEBLING'S SONS CO., TRENTON, N. J. 



Standard Hoisting 


Rope, with 19 


Transmission and Standing Rope, 




Wires to the Strand 




with 7 Wires to the Strand. 




a 


.2 


_^3 


o o . 

.a 




_a 


a 


a . 


O O . 
























o 
.o 


a 
3 


'3 O 

h ° 


— ? 3 

CD - £ 




o 
<2 


CD 
O 

a 


'5 o 
u o 


gsj 


6 


a> a 


u 
s£ to 

a ^ 

2-^ 
a o 

2.2 


be-*, 
a o 

|5 


III 


6 

ft 

I- 


a) a 

■z u 


£ to 

si? 

— o 
£> a 


a o 


.<x> <» 

111 

t.-a <y 


H 


f*H 


O 


PQ 


'O 


11 


P4 


£3 


n 


b 


1 


1 00 


61 


74 


m 


48 


4| 


36 


10| 


2 


78 


6 


65 


m 


12 


39 


4i 


30 


10 


3 


69 


5i 


54 


13 


13 


34 


31 


25 


91 


4 


58 


5 


44 


12 


14 


27 


31 


20 


8 


5 


53 


41 


39 


ni 


15 


23 


3 


16 


7 


5-V 


43 


4| 


33 


10i 


16 


19 


2§ 


12.3 


61 


6 


36 


4 


27 


9£ 


17 


14 


21 


8.8 


5i 


7 


29 


3i 


20 


8 


18 


12 


24 


7.6 


5 


8 


26 


34 


16 


7 


19 


10i 


U 


5.8 


4| 


9 


20 


21 


11.50 


6 


20 


8 


11 


4.1 


4 


10 


16 


2i 


8.64 


5 


21 


7 


if 


2.83 


3i 


10i 


14 


2 


5.13 


4£ 


22 


5h 


H 


2.13 


2f 


lOi 


12 


If 


4.27 


4 


23 


5 


li 


1.65 


2i 


10| 


10 


li 


3.48 


3i 


24 


4 


1 


1.38 


2i 


10J 


8 


li 


2.50 


3 


25 


3i 


1 


1.03 


2 



Tiller Rope, f in. diam., 2lc. per foot ; | in. diam., 16c. per foot ; £ in. 
diam., 12c. per foot. 

Notes on the Use of Wire Rope, by Mr. Roebling. 

Two kinds of wire rope are manufactured. The most pliable 
variety contains nineteen wires in the strand, and is generally used 

*Less 30 per cent, discount to consumers. 



126 STRENGTH OF WIRE ROPE. 

for hoisting and running rope. The ropes with twelve wires and 
seven wires in the strand are stiffer, and are better adapted for 
standing rope, guys and rigging. 

For safe working load, allow one-fifth to one-seventh of the ul- 
timate strength, according to speed, so as to get good wear from the 
rope. When substituting wire rope for hemp rope, it is good economy 
to allow for the former the same weight per foot which experience 
has approved for the latter. 

Wire rope is as pliable as new hemp rope of the same strength ; 
the former will therefore run over the same sized sheaves and pulleys 
as the latter. But the greater the diameter of the sheaves, pulleys 
or drums, the longer wire rope will last. In the construction of 
machinery for wire rope, it will be found good economy to make the 
drums and sheaves as large as possible. 

Experience has demonstrated that the wear increases with the 
speed. It is, therefore, better to increase the load than the speed. 

Wire rope is manufactured either with a wire or a hemp centre. 
The latter is more pliable than the former, and will wear better 
where there is short bending. 

Wire rope must not be coiled or uncoiled like hemp rope. When 
mounted on a reel, the latter should be mounted on a spindle or flat 
turn-table to pay off the rope. When forwarded in a small coil, 
without reel, roll it over the ground like a wheel, and run off the 
rope in that way. All untwisting or kinking must be avoided. 

To preserve wire rope, apply raw linseed oil with a piece of sheep- 
skin, wool inside ; or mix the oil with equal parts of Spanish brown 
or lamp-black. 

To preserve wire rope under water or under ground, take mineral 
or vegetable tar, and add one bushel of fresh-slacked lime to one 
barrel of tar, which will neutralize the acid. Boil it well, and sat- 
urate the rope with the hot tar. To give the mixture body, add 
some saw-dust. 

In no case should galvanized rope be used for running rope. One 
day's use scrapes off the coating of zinc, and rusting proceeds with 
twice the rapidity. 

The grooves of cast-iron pulleys and sheaves should be filled with 
well-seasoned blocks of hard wood, set on end, to be renewed when 
worn out. This end- wood will save wear and increase adhesion. The 
smaller pulleys or rollers which support the ropes on inclined planes 
should be constructed on the same plan. When large sheaves run 
with very great velocity, the grooves should be lined with leather, 
set on end, or with India rubber. This is done in the case of all 
sheaves used in the transmission of power between distant points 
by means of rope, which frequently run at the rate of 4000 feet per 
minute. 

Steel ropes are, to a certain extent, taking the place of iron ropes, 
where it is a special object to combine lightness with strength. 

But in substituting a steel rope for an iron running rope, the ob- 
ject in view should be to gain an increased wear from the rope rather 
than to reduce the size. 



STRENGTH OF IRON CHAINS 



127 



To be serviceable, a steel rope should be of the best obtainable 
quality, as ropes made from low grades of steel are inferior to good 
iron ropes. 

WEIGHT AND STRENGTH OP IRON CHAINS. 

The links of ordinary iron chains are usually made as 
short as is consistent with easy play, in order that they may not 
become bent when wound around drums, sheaves, etc. ; and that 
they may be more easily handled in slinging large blocks of 
stone, etc. 

When so made, their weight per foot run is quite approximately 
3J times that of a single bar of the round iron of which they are 
composed. Since each link consists of two thicknesses of bar, it 
might be supposed that a chain would possess about double the 
strength of a single bar; but the strength of the bar becomes 
reduced about fa by being formed into links; so that the chain 
really has but about -^ of the strength of two bars. As a thick 
bar of iron will not sustain as heavy a load in proportion as a 
thinner one, so of course stout chains are proportionably weaker 
than slighter ones. In the following table, 20 tons per square inch 
is assumed as the average breaking strain of a single straight bar 
of ordinary rolled iron, 1 inch in diameter, or 1 inch square ; 19 
tons, from 1 to 2 inches ; and 18 tons, from 2 to 3 inches. Deduct- 
ing T 3 g- from each of these, we have as the breaking strain of the 
two bars composing each link, as follows: 14 tons^gr square inch, 
up to 1 inch diameter; 18-3 tons, from 1 to 2 inches; and 12-6 
tons, from 2 to 3 inches diameter ; and upon these assumptions 
the table is based. 



TABLE OF STRENGTH OF CHAINS. (Original.) 
Chains of superior iron will require J to J more to break them. 



Diam. of rod 
oi which 


Weight 


Breaking strain 


Diam. of rod 
of which 


Weight 


Breaking strain 


the links 
arc made. 


per ft. run. 


of the chain. 


the links 
are made 


perft.ruu. 


of the chain. 


Ins. 


Pds. 


Pds. 


Tons. 


Ins. 


Pds. 


Pds. 


Tons. 


A 


•325 


1,731 


•773 


1 


9-26 


49,280 


22-00 


5 


•579 


3,069 


1-37 


1* 


11-7 


59,226 


26-44 


A 


•904 


4,791 


2-14 


1* 


14-5 


73,114 


32 64 


3 
■g" 


1-30 


6,922 


3-09 


H 


17-5 


88,301 


39-42 


tV 


1-78 


9,408 


4-20 


i* 


20-8 


105,280 


47-00 


i 


2-31 


12,320 


5-50 


i| 


24-4 


123,514 


55-14 


A 


2-93 


15,590 


6-96 


if 


28-4 


143,293 


63-97 


1 


3-62 


19,219 


8-58 


if 


32-6 


164,505 


73-44 


A 


4-38 


23,274 


10-39 


2 


37-0 


187,152 


83-55 


i 


5-21 


27,687 


12-36 


2J 


46-9 


224,448 


100-2 


« 


6-11 


32,301 


14-42 


2£ 


57-9 


277,088 


123-7 


? 


7-10 


37,632 


16-80 


2f 


70-0 


335,328 


149-7 


n 


8-14 


43,277 


19-32 


3 


83-3 


398,944 


178-1 



128 



WEIGHT OF RAILROAD SPIKES 



WEIGHT OP RAILROAD SPIKES. 

The hook - headed spikes t, commonly used for confining 
rails to the cross-ties, vary within the limits of the following 
table ; the lightest ones for light rails on short local 
branches ; and the heaviest ones for heavy rails on first- 
class roads. The table is from the Phoenix Iron Company 
of Philadelphia. The spikes are sold in kegs usually of 150 
pounds. For the weight of spikes of larger dimensions, we 
may near enough take that of a square bar of the same 
length. What is saved at the point, suffices for the addi- 
tion at the head. 



Fig.43 
CI 



Size in ins. 


No. per keg 
of 150 lbs. 


No. 
per ft). 


Size in ins. 


No. per keg 
of 150 Bas. 


No. 
per ft). 


Length. Side. 




Length. Side. 






4 i X A 


526 


3-5 


HX 1 


350 


2-33 


4|X! 


400 


2-66 


H X A 


289 


1-93 


5X1 


705 


4-7 


HX 1 


218 


1-46 


5 XA 


488 


3 25 


6 X \ 


310 


2-07 


5X1 


390 


2-6 


6 XA 


2(>2 


1-75 


5 XA 


295 


1-97 


6 X f 


196 


1-30 


5 X I 


257 


1-71 









A size in very common use is b\ X A' wuich weighs about 
\ pound per spike. A mile of single track road, with 2,112 cross- 
ties, 21 feet apart from centre to centre, and with rails of the 
ordinary length of 24 feet, or 10 ties to a rail, thus having 440 
rail-joints per mile, with 4 spikes to each tie, except at the rail- 
joints, at each of which there will be 4 spikes,f will require, at 
a neat calculation, 9,328 spikes. 

But an allowance must be made for rail guards at road-cross- 
ings, which we may assume to be 24 feet wide, or the length of a 
rail. A guard will usually consist of 4 extra rails for protecting 
the track rails, and spiked to the 11 ties by which said track rails 
are sustained. Consequently, such a crossing requires 11 X8 = 
88 spikes. For turnouts, sidings, loss, etc., we may roughly 
average 584 J spikes more per mile ; thus making in all (if we 
assume one road-crossing per mile) 9328 -J- 88 -4- 584 = 10,000 
spikes per mile, or 5000 pounds, or 33J kegs of 150 pounds. 

Adhesion of Spikes. — Professor W. R. Johnson found that 

f This supposes the joint and chair to rest upon a tie ;' but when long chairs 
are used, with a view of placing the rail-joint between two ties laid near each 
other, there will be 8 spikes to a joint ; or 1,760 per mile more than above ; 
equal to 880 pounds; making in all, per mile single track, say 12,000 spikes, or 
6,000 pounds, or 40 kegs. 

% This allows that turnouts and sidings amount to about 1 mile of extra track 
on 15 miles of road. 



WEIGHT OF NAILS 



129 



a plain spike -375, or § inch square, driven 3f inches into seasoned 
Jersey yellow pine, or unseasoned chestnut, required about 2000 
pounds force to extract it; from seasoned white oak, about 4000; 
and from well-seasoned locust, about 6000 pounds. Bevan found 
that a 6-peuny nail, driven one inch, required the following forces 
to extract it: Seasoned beech, 667 pounds; oak, 507; elm, 327; 
pine, 187. 

Recent careful experiments in Hanover, Germany, by 
Engineer Funk, give from 2465 to 3940 pounds (mean of many 
experiments, about 3000 pounds) as the force necessary to extract 
a plain \ inch square iron spike, 6 inches long, wedge-pointed for 
one inch (twice the thickness of the spike), and driven 4J 
inches into white or yellow pine. When driven 5 inches, pj^ 44 t 
the force required was about T ^ part greater. Similar 
spikes, T 9 ^. inch square, 7 inches long, driven 6 inches 
deep, required from 3700 to 6745 pounds to extract them 
from pine; the mean of the results being 4873 pounds. 
In all cases about twice as much force was required to extract 
them from oak. The spikes were all driven across the 
grain of the wood. Experience shows that when driven 
with the grain, spikes or nails do not hold with much more than 
half as much force. 

Jagged spikes, or twisted ones (like an auger), or those which 
were either swelled or diminished near the middle of their length, 
all proved inferior to plain square ones. When the length of the 
wedge point was increased to 4 times the thickness of the spike, 
the resistance to drawing out was a trifle less. 

When the length of the spike is fixed, there is probably no 
better shape than the plain square cross-section, with a wedge 
point twice as long as the width of the spike, as per Fig. 44. 

Boards of oak or pine, nailed together by from 4 to 16 
tenpenny common cut nails, and then pulled apart in a direction 
lengthwise of the boards, and across the nails, tending to break 
the latter in two by a shearing action, averaged about 300 to 400 
pounds per nail to separate them ; as the result of many trials. 



WEIGHT OF NAILS. 



Name. 


Length. 
Inches. 


No. per ft*. 


Name. 


Length. 
Inches. 


No. per ft). 


3 penny 

4 " 

5 " 

6 " 

7 " 


1 

I* 

2£ 


557 
353 
232 
175 
141 


8 penny 

10 " 

12 " 

20 " 


2£ 
2f 
3 


101 
68 
54 
34 



130 STRENGTH OF CAST IRON BEAMS. 

The sizes and weights vary considerably with different makers. 
The above are machine-made, or cut nails, in distinction to the 
wrought nails made by the blacksmith. 

A TABLE 

Showing the Weight or Pressure a beam of Cast Iron, 1 inch in breadth, 
will sustain, without destroying its elastic force, when it is supported 
at each end, and loaded in the middle of its length, and also the de- 
flection in the middle which that weight will produce. By Mr. Hodg- 
kinson, Manchester. 



Length. 


6 Feet. 


7 Feet. 


8 Feet. 


9 Feet. 


10 Feet. 


Depth 


Weight 


Defl. 


Weight 


Dell. 


Weight 


Defl. 


Weight 


Defl. 


Weight 


Defl. 


in in. 


in lbs. 


in in. 


in lbs. 


in in. 


in lbs. 


in in. 


in lbs. 


in in. 


in lbs. 


in in. 


3 


1278 


•24 


1089 


•33 


954 


■426 


855 


•54 


765 


^66~" 


H 


1739 


•205 


1482 


•28 


1298 


•365 


1164 


•46 


1041 


•57 


4 


2272 


•18 


1936 


•245 


1700 


•32 


1520 


•405 


1360 


•5 


4£ 


2875 


•16 


2450 


•217 


2146 


•284 


1924 


•36 


1721 


•443 


5 


3560 


•144 


3050 


•196 


2650 


•256 


2375 


•32 


2125 


•4 


6 


5112 


•12 


4356 


•163 


3816 


•213 


3420 


•27 


3060 


•33 


7 


6958 


•103 


5929 


•14 


5194 


•183 


4655 


•23 


4165 


•29 


8 


9088 


•09 


7744 


•123 


6784 


•16 


6080 


•203 


5440 


•25 


9 






9801 


•109 


8586 


•142 


7695 


•18 


6885 


22 


10 






12100 


•098 


10600 


•128 


9500 


•162 


8500 


•2 


11 










12826 


•117 


11495 


•15 


10285 


•182 


12 










15264 


•107 


13680 


•135 


12240 


•17 


13 














16100 


•125 


14400 


•154 


14 














18600 


•115 


16700 


143 




12 Feet. 


14 Feet. 


16 Feet. 


18 Feet. 


20 Feet. 


6 


2548 


•48 


2184 


•65 


1912 


•85 


1699 


1-08 


1530 


1-34 


7 


3471 


•41 


2975 


•58 


2603 


•73 


2314 


•93 


2082 


114 


8 


4532 


•36 


3884 


•49 


3396 


•64 


3020 


•81 


2720 


1-00 


9 


5733 


•32 


4914 


•44 


4302 


•57 


3825 


•72 


3438 


•89 


10 


7083 


•28 


6071 


•39 


5312 


•51 


4722 


•64 


4250 


•8 


11 


8570 


•26 


7346 


•36 


6428 


•47 


5714 


•59 


5142 


•73 


12 


10192 


•24 


8736 


•33 


7648 


•43 


6796 


•54 


6120 


•67 


13 


11971 


•22 


10260 


•31 


8978 


•39 


7980 


•49 


7182 


•61 


14 


13883 


•21 


11900 


•28 


10412 


•36 


9255 


•46 


8330 


•57 


15 


15937 


•19 


13660 


•26 


11952 


•34 


10624 


•43 


9562 


•53 


16 


18128 


•18 


15536 


•24 


13584 


•32 


12080 


•40 


10880 


•5 


17 


20500 


•17 


17500 


•23 


15353 


•30 


13647 


•38 


12282 


•47 


18 


22932 


•1.6 


19656 


•21 


17208 


•28 


15700 


•36 


13752 


•44 



Note. — This table shows the greatest weight that ever ought to 
be laid upon a beam for permanent load ; and if there be any Ha- 



RESISTANCE OF BODIES. 131 

bility to jerks, etc., ample allowance must be made; also, the 
weight, of the beam itself must be included. [See Tables of Cast 
Iron. ] 

To find the Weight of a Cast Iron Beam of given 
Dimensions. 

Rule. — Multiply the sectional area in inches by the length in 
feet, and by 3-2, the product equal the weight in pounds. 

Example. — Required the weight of a uniform rectangular beam 
of cast iron, 16 feet in length, 11 inches in breadth, and 1^ inch 
in thickness. 

11 X 1*5 X 16 X 3 ' 2 = 844 " 8 pounds. 

Resistance of Bodies to Flexure by Vertical Pressure. 

When a piece of timber is employed as a column or support, its 
tendency to yielding by compression is different according to the 
proportion between its length and area of its cross section; and 
supposing the form that of a cylinder whose length is less than 
seven or eight times its diameter, it is impossible to bend it by 
any force applied longitudinally, as it will be destroyed by split- 
ting before that bending can take place; but when the length ex- 
ceeds this, the column will bend under a certain load, and be 
ultimately destroyed by a similar kind of action to that which has 
place in the transverse strain. Columns of cast iron and of other 
bodies are also similarly circumstanced. 

When the length of a cast iron column with flat, ends equals about 
thirty times its diameter, fracture will be produced wholly by 
bending of the material. When of less length, fracture takes 
place partly by crushing and partly by bending. But, when the 
column is enlarged in the middle of its length from one and a 
half to twice 'its diameter at the ends, by being cast hollow, the 
strength is greater by one-seventh than in a solid column con- 
taining the same quantity of material. 

To determine the Dimensions of a Support or Column to 
bear, without sensible Curvature, a given Pressure in 
the Direction of its Axis. 

Rule. — Multiply the pressure to be supported in pounds by the 
square of the column's length in feet, and divide the product by 
twenty times the tabular value of E; and the quotient, will be 
equal to the breadth multiplied by the cube of the least thickness, 
both being expressed in inches. 

Note 1. — When the pillar or support is a square, its side will be 
the fourth root of the quotient. 

Note 2. — If the pillar or column be a cylinder, multiply the 
tabular value of E by 12, and the fourth root of the quotient equal 
the diameter. 



132 ELASTICITY OF TORSION. 

Example 1. — What should be the least dimensions of an oak 
support, to bear a weight of 2240 pounds, without sensible flexure, 
its breadth being 3 inches, and its length 5 feet? 

Tabular value of E = 105, 



2240 X 5 



and — 9 = V8-888 = 2 ' 05 inches. 

20 X 105 X 3 

Example 2. — Required the side of a square piece of Riga fir, 9 
feet in length, to bear a permanent weight of 0000 pounds. 

Tabular value of E = 9G, 

6000 X 9 2 

and ( = *|/258 = 4 inches nearly. 



Elasticity of Torsion, or Resistance of Bodies to 
Twisting. 

The angle of flexure by torsion is as the length and extensi- 
bility of the body directly and inversely as the diameter; hence 
the length of a bar or shaft being given, the power, and the lever- 
age the power acts with, being known, and also the number of 
degrees of torsion that will not affect the action of the machine, 
to determine the diameter in cast iron with a given angle of 
flexure. 

Rule. — Multiply the power in pounds by the length of the shaft 
in feet, and by the leverage in feet; divide the product by fifty- 
five times the number of degrees in the angle of torsion; and the 
fourth root of the quotient equal the shaft's diameter in inches. 

Example. — Required the diameters for a series of shafts 35 feet 
in length, and to transmit a power equal to 1245 pounds, acting 
at the circumference of a wheel 2^ feet radius, so that the twist 
of the shafts on the application of the power may not exceed one 
degree. 

1245 X 35 V 2-5 

£ P = VI 981 = 6 '67 inches in diameter. 

55 X 1 



To determine the Side of a Square Shaft to resist Tor- 
sion with a given Flexure. 

Rule. — Multiply the power in pounds by the leverage it acts 
with in feet, and also by the length of the shaft in feet ; divide 
this product by 92-5 times the angle of flexure in degrees, and 
the square root of the quotient equals the area of the shaft in 
inches. 

Example. — Suppose the length of a shaft to be 12 feet, and to 
be driven by a power equal to 700 pounds, acting at 1 foot from 



STRENGTH OF BEAMS. 133 

the centre of the shaft — required the area of cross section, so that 
it may not exceed 1 degree of flexure. 

700 v 1 v 12 

92/ 5 x\ = V 90 ' 8 = 9 ' 53 in ches. 

Relative Strength of Bodies to resist Torsion, Lead 
being 1 

Tin 1-4 Gun Metal 5-0 I English Iron.... 10-1 

Copper 4-3 | Cast Iron 9-0 i Blistered Steel.. 16-6 

Yellow Brass 4-6 I Swedish Iron.... 9-5 I Shear Steel 17-0 



STRENGTH OF BEAMS. 



[From Lowndes' Engineer's Hand-Book.] 
Solid, Rectangular, and Round — To find their Strength. 

Square and rectangular. 

(Depth ins.) 2 X Thickness ins. „ . . 

*— * L ^ h> fu X Tabular No. = Breaking weight, 

Round. 
X Tabular No. = Breaking weight, tons. 

Hollow. 
(Outside dia. ins.) 3 — (Inside dia. ins.) 



tons. 

(Diameter ins/ 
Length in ft. 



weight, tons. 



Length, ft. 



X Tabular No. = Breaking 



Thickness not 



exceeding -j 



1 inch for iron. 2 ins. for iron. 
3 ins. for wood. 6 ins. for wood. 



3 ins. for iron. 
12 ins. for wood. 



Square and Rectangular. 



Cast and Wrought Iron 
Teak and greenheart 
Pitch pine, and Cana- 
dian oak 

Fir, red pine, and Eng- 
lish oak 




•26 



•18 
•18 



134 STRENGTH OF BEAMS. 

Round. 



Cast and Wrought Iron 
Teak and greenheart... 
Fir and English oak... 


•8 

•28 

•14 


•68 
•25 
•125 


•56 

•2 

•1 


To find the Breaking Weight in lbs. 


use the Tabular No 


below* 


Thickness not exceeding < 


1 inch for iron. 
3 ins. for wood. 


2 ins. for iron. 
6 ins. for wood. 


3 ins. for iron. 
12 ins. for wood. 


Square and Rectangular. 




2240 
800 
400 


1900 

710 

355 




1570 


Teak 

Fir and oak 


570 

285 






Round. 


Iron 


1800 
640 
320 


1570 
570 

285 




1260 


Teak 


460 


Fir and oak 


230 



Though wrought and cast iron are represented in these rules 
as of equal strength, it should be observed that while a cast iron 
bar 1 inch X 1 inch X 1 f° ot inch long, of average quality, will 
break with one ton, a similar bar of wrought iron only loses its 
elasticity, and deflects y 1 ^ th of an inch, yet as it can only carry 
a further weight by destroying its shape and increasing the de^ 
flection, it is best to calculate on the above basis: 



A wrought iron bar 
1 in. X 1 in- X 1 



ft. in. long j 



deflects 



\ with 



1 ton. 

1* " 

2\ « 

The above rule gives the weight that will break the beam if put 
on the middle. If the weight is laid equally all over, it would re- 
quire double the weight to break it. 

A beam should not be loaded with more than £ of the breaking 
weight in any case, and as a general rule not with more than \; 
for purposes of machinery, not with more than £ to T x 7 , depending 
on circumstances. 

To find the proper size for any given purpose. 

Rectangular. 
Weight X Length ft. 

■ Tabular N o ^ ° r 0r 6 ' etc '' accort ^ n S to circumstances 

= b d 2 ins. 



SOLID COLUMNS. 

Round. 



135 



V Weight X Length ft. according to circum- 

TabularNo. ^ 
stances = Diam. ins. 



SOLID COLUMNS. 

Fail by crushing with length under 5 diameters. 

Principally by crushing from 5 to 15 " 

Partly by crushing, partly by bending, from. 15 to 25 " 
Altogether by bending above 25 " 

Cast iron of average quality is crushed with 49 tons per sq. in. 

Wrought, iron of average quality is crushed with 16 " " 

Wrought iron is permanently injured with 12 " " 

Oak wrought is crushed with 4 " " 

Deal wrought is crushed with 2 " " 

The comparative strength of different columns, of different 
lengths, will be seen very clearly from the following table derived 
from experiments by Mr. Hodgkinson : 



Wrought Iron Bars. 


Proportion of Length 
to Thickness. 


Gave way with 


Square. 


Length. 






ins. 


ft. ins. 




1X1 


n 


7itol 


21-7 tons per sq. inch. 


i i 


1 3 


15 to 1 


15-4 


<< 


2 6 


30 to 1 


11-3 " « 


a 


5 


60 to 1 


7-5 


" 


7 6 


90 to 1 


4-3 


1X1 


5 


120 to 1 


2-5 




7 6 


180 to 1 


1- 



To find the Strength of any Wrought Iron Column with 
Square Ends. 

Area of column sq. inches X tons per inch corresponding to pro- 
portion of length, as per table above = Breaking weight, tons. 

If the ends are rounded, divide the final result by 3 to find the 
breaking weight. 

In columns of oblong section, the narrowest side must always 
be taken in calculating the proportion of height to width. 



136 



STRENGTH OF COLUMNS. 



To find the Strength of Round Columns exceeding 25 
Diameters in Length. (Mr. Hodgkinson's Rule.) 

(Diameter, ins.) 3 - 6 v y m , , ^ T _ 

^-— 1>7 X Tabular No. = Breaking weight, tons. 



Wrought iron 

Cast iron 

Dantzic oak.. 
Red deal 




A column should not be loaded with more than \ of the breaking 
weight in any case, and as a general rule, not with more than \ ; 
for purposes of machinery, not with more than \ to -fa, according 
to circumstances. 



TABLES OF POWERS FOR THE DIAMETERS AND LENGTHS OF 
COLUMNS. 



Diameter. 


3-6 Power. 


Diameter. 


3-6 Power. 


Length. 


1-7 Power. 


1 in. 


1- 


7 in. 


1102-04 


1 


1- 


1 


2-23 


J 


1251- 


2 


3-25 


i 


4-3 


£ 


1413-3 


3 


6-47 


I " 


7-5 


a 


1590-3 


4 


10-556 


2 


12-1 


8 


17829 


5 


15-426 


i 


18-5 


I 


1991-7 


6 


21-031 


h 


27- 


i 


2217-7 


7 


27-332 


3l 


3816 


2. 


2461-7 


8 


34-297 


3 


52-2 


9 


2724-4 


9 


41-9 


I 


69-63 


£ 


3006-85 


10 


50-119 


i 


90-9 


£ 


3309-8 


11 


58-934 


f 


116-55 


f 


3634-3 


12 


68-329 


4 


147* 


10 


3981-07 


13 


78-289 


I 


182-9 


i 


4351-2 


14 


88-8 


% 


224-68 


\ 


4745-5 


15 


99-85 


3. 


272-96 


t 


5165- 


16 


111-43 


5 


328-3 


n 


5610-7 


17 


123-53 


I 


391-36 


\ 


6083-4 


18 


136-13 


i 


462-71 


\ 


6584-3 


19 


149-24 


f 


543-01 


t 


7114-4 


20 


162-84 


6 


632-91 


12 


7674-5 


21 


176-92 


i 


733-11 






22 


191-48 


* 


844-28 






23 


206-51 


t 


967-15 






24 


222- 



HOLLOW COLUMNS. 



137 



HOLLOW COLUMNS. 

Hollow columns fail principally by crushing, provided the length 
does not exceed 25 diameters ; indeed, the length does not appear 
to affect the strength much till it exceeds 50 diameters. 

The comparative strength of different forms and of different 
thicknesses will appear so distinctly from the experiments below, 
made by Mr. Hodgkinson, that no difficulty will be found in ascer- 
taining the strength due to any size or form of column that may 
be required. 

SQUARE COLUMNS OF PLATE IRON RIVETED. 
Columns 10 feet O inches long. 



Size. 



4 in. X ^ m - 



8 in. X 8 in. 



Thick- 
ness. 



•03 

•06 

•1 

•2 

•06 

•14 

•22 

•25 



Proportion of 
Thickness to Width. 



133" 

f 
? 

T33 



Proportion 
of Length 
to Width. 


Break'g weight 

Tons per sq. in. 

of Section. 


30 to 1 


4-9 


« 


8-6 


M 


10- 


it 


12- 


15 to 1 


6- 


«< 


9- 


tt 


11-5 


a 


12- 



Column 8 feet O incites long. 


18 X 18 *5 ^o practically 5-4 to 1 


13-6 


Column 10 feet O incites long, with cells. 


8 in. X 8 in. | -06 ^ of width of cells 15 to 1 


8-6 



To find the strength of any Hollow Wrought Iron 
Column. 

Tons per inch, corresponding to the 
Sec. area. sq. ins. X proportions of length and thick- = 
ness to width as per tables 
Breaking weight, tons. 

COLUMNS OF OBLONG SECTION. 

The strength of these may be ascertained by the same rule as 
that of square columns. The smallest width being taken in calcu- 
lating the proportion of height to width, while the longest side 
must be taken into consideration in calculating the proportion of 
thickness to width. 
11 



138 



CRANE. 
Column 10 feet O inches long. 



Size. 


Thick- 
ness. 


Proportion of 

Thickness to 

greatest Width. 


Proportion of 

Length to least 

Width. 


Actual Breaking 
weight Tons per 
sq. in. of Section. 


8 in. X 4 in. 


•06 


l 
T3T 


30 to 1 


6-78 



ROUND COLUMNS OF PLATE IRON RIVETED. 



Columns 10 feet O inches long. 







Proportion 


Dia- 


Thick- 


of thick- 


meter. 


ness- 


ness to 
Diameter. 


1* 


•1 


1 


2 


•i 


A 


2* 


•1 


i 


n 


•24 


x x r 


^ 


•21 


A 


a 


•15 


A 


4 


•15 


A 


6 


•1 


i 

¥0" 


6 


■18 


1 



Proportion 
of length to 
Diameter. 



80 to 1 
60 to 1 
48 to 1 
48 to 1 
48tol 
40tol 
30 to 1 
20 to 1 
20 to 1 



Breaking 
Weight. 

Tons per 
sq. inch. 



6-5 
10-35 
13-3 
9-6 
9-9 
12-36 
12-34 
15- 
18-6 



Same Columns 
Reduced in Length. 



Breaking Weights. 
Tons per square inch. 



5 ft. in. long. 2 ft. 6 in. long 



13-9 

14-8 

15-6 

15-6 

13- 

13- 

13- 

17- 



5-8 
16-5 
16-3 
16- 
17- 
16-5 

18-6 



It would seem from this that a thickness of jfc, or J inch in 
thickness for every foot in diameter is a good proportion for this 
kind of column. 

It will be seen from these experiments, that it is the proportion 
of thickness to the width of cell which regulates the strength 
within certain limits of height. 

And that a thickness of -^ or £ inch for every 4 inches in width, 
will give the highest result practicable for square columns. 



CRANE. 

The strains on the principal parts can be ascertained with great 
ease in the following manner — the strength being proportioned 
accordingly. 

To find the Strain on the Post. 



Weight suspended, tons X Projection, feet 
Height of post above ground, feet 



Strain on top of post, 
tons. 



The post can then be calculated as a beam, twice as long as this 
height from ground, with twice the weight on the middle. [See 
Beams.] 



COLD WATER PUMP, ETC. 139 

COLD WATER PUMP. 

Usually J of cylinder diameter when the stroke is % that of piston. 

i " " * 

To find the proper size, under any circumstances, capa- 
ble of supplying twice the quantity ordinarily used 
for injection. 
Cub. ft. water per hour used in cylinder in form of steam 

Stroke of pump, ft. X strokes per minute 
of pump in square feet. 

PEDESTAL — BRACKET. 

Pedestal. 

Good proportions. 
Thickness of cover *4 of diameter of bearing. 

" of sole plate *3 " " 

Diameter of bolts -25 " " if 2. 

" " -18 " " if there are 4. 

Distance between bolts twice diameter of bearing. 

Bracket. 

Solid. Metal round brass equal to J diameter of bearing. 

General thickness web, etc., equal to ^ diameter of bearing. 
With Feathers. Width at lightest equal to diameter of bearing. 
Thickness equal to | " " 

FRICTION. 

From Mr. Rennie's Experiments. 

The friction of metal on metal, without unguents, 
May be taken at i of the weight up to 40 lbs. per square inch. 
i „ „ ioo 

Brass on cast iron \ " " 800 M 

Wrought on cast iron J " " 500 " 

With tallow at ^ of the weight. 
" olive oil at-Jg- " 

800 lbs. per inch forces out the oil. 
Friction of journals under ordinary circumstances ^ of weight. 
" well oiled, sometimes only -fa " 

CENTRIFUGAL FORCE. 

(Revolutions per min.)' X *»■ m ft. X weight = Centrifugal forc(J 

58 < 
in terms of weight. 



140 



WEIGHTS AND VOLUMES. 



WEIGHTS AND VOLUMES OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES IN 
ORDINARY USE. 



SUBSTANCES. 


So 

S3 


5* 
a ° 


METALS. 

Brass, f copper 67. ) 
" (zinc 33. J 
" gun metal.. 


Lbs. 

488.75 

543.75 

513.6 

521.16 

547.25 

543.625 

450.437 

466.5 

479.5 

481.5 

486.75 

709.5 

711.75 

848.7487 

487.75 

489.562 

4.55.687 

428.812 

440.437 

52.812 

51.375 

15. 

35.062 

38.125 

49.5 

43 125 

83 312 

57.062 

35. 

66.437 

54.5 

58.25 

66.75 

5175 

42.937 

41.25 

36.875 

34.625 

29.562 


Lbs. 

.2829 

.3147 
.297 


" wire 


.3033 




.3179 




.3167 


Tron, cast 


.2607 


" gun metal 

" heavy forging 
" plates 


.27 

.2775 
.2787 


" wrought bars. 
Lead, cast 


.2816 
.4106 


" rolled 


.4119 


Mercurv, 60° 


.491174 


Steel, plates 


.2823 


" soft 


.2833 


Tin 


.2637 


Zinc, cast 


.2482 


" rolled 


.2601 


WOODS. 

Ash 


Cub. Ft. 

in a ton. 

42 414 


Bay 

Cork 


43 601 
149 333 


Cedar 


63.886 


Chestnut 


58.754 


Hickory, pignut 

" shell-bark 
Liguumvitse 


45.252 
51.942 

26.886 


Logwood 


39 255 


Mahog. Hondur's j 

Oak, Canadian 

" English 


64. 

33.714 
4 .101 

;-8 455 


" live, seasoned 

" white, dry 

"' " upland 
Pine, pitch 


33.558 
41.674 
52.169 
54.303 


" red, 


60.745 


" white 

" well seasoned 


64.693 
75.773 



SUBSTANCES. 



WOODS. 

Pine, yellow 

Spruce 

Walnut, bl'k, dry. 

Willow 

44 dry 



MISCELLANEOUS. 



Air 

Basalt, mean. 

Brick, fire 

" mean... 



Coal, anthracite, -j 

" bitum. mean 

" Cannel 

" Cumberland 
" Welsh.mean 

Coke 

Cotton, bale, mean 

" " pressd j 

Earth, clay 

" com'n soil.. 

« »» gravel 

" dry, sand... 

" loose 

" moist, sand 

•* mould 

" mud 

" with gravel 
Granite, Quiney... 
" Susqueh'na 

Hay, bale 

pressed.. 

India rubber. 

" vulcanized 

Limestone 

Marble, mpan 

Mortar, dry, mean 
Water, fresh 

" salt 

Steam 






Lbs. 

33.812 

31.25 

31.25 

36.562 

30.375 



.075291 
175. 
137.526 
102, 

89.75 
102.5 

80. 

91.875 

84.687 

81.25 

62.5 

14.5 

20. 

25. 

120.625 
1x7.125 
109.312 
1-0. 

93.75 
128.125 
128.125 
101.875 
126.25 
165.75 
169. 
9.525 

25. 

56.437 

197.25 
167.^75 

97.98 

62.5 

61.125 
.036747 



55 d 

.0*3 3 



66.248 
71.68 
71.68 
61.265 

7o.744 



12.8 

16 284 

21961 

24.958 

21.854 

28 

23*609 

26.451 

27.569 

35.84 

154.48 

114. 
89.6 
18.569 
16 335 
20.49 
18.667 
23 893 
17482 
17.482 
21.987 
17.742 
13 514 
13.254 
23.517 
89.6 



11.355 
13.343 

22.862 
35 84 
34 931 



TABLES FOR ENGINEERS, ETC, 



141 



WEIGHT OF ONE FOOT OF FLAT BAR IRON. 

If a bar of iron be thicker than contained in the table, add together 
the weight of two numbers, or treble the weight of one number. 
Wanted the weightof 1 foot of bar iron, 4 inches broad and 2 1-4 inches 
thick. Opposite 4 and under 1 is 13.364, which doubled is 26.728 ; add 
the weight of l-4th (3.341), equal 30.069 lbs. 






THICKNESS LN PARTS OF AN INCH. 



1 

IX 

itf 

IK 
IK 
IX 
IK 
IX 

2 

2X 

2X i 

2y 2 

2X 
2% 

2X 
3 

3X 
3M 
3% 
4 

4^ 

5 

5^ 

5K 
5% 
6 



.835 
.939 
1.044 
1.148 
1.252 
1.358 
1.462 
1.566 
1.671 
1.775 
1.880 
1.984 
2.088 
2.193 
2.297 
2.402 
2.506 
2.715 
2.923 
3.132 
3.341 
3.549 
3.758 
3.966 
4.175 
4.384 
4.593 
4.801 
5.010 



A 


3 

8 


Td 


h 


1.044 


1.253 


1.461 


1.670! 


1.174 


1.409 


1.644 


1.878; 


1.305 


1.566 


1.826 


2.088 


1.435 


1.722 


2.009 


2.296 


1.566 


1.879 


2.192 


2.504 


1.696 


2.035 


2.374 


2.716 


1.827 


2.192 


2.557 


2.924 


1.957 


2.348 


2.740 


3.132! 


2.088 


2.505 


2.922 


3.342! 


2.218 


2.662 


3.105 


3.550 


2.348 


2.818 


3.288 


3.760! 


2.479 


2.975 


3.470 


3.9681 


2.609 


3.131 


3.653 


4.1761 


2.740 


3.288 


3.836 


4.386 


2.870 


3.444 


4.018 


4.594 


3.001 


3.601 


4.201 


4.804 


3.131 


3.758 


4.384 


5.012 


3.392 


4.071 


4.749 


5.430 


3.653 


4.384 


5.114 


5.846 


3.914 


4.697 


5.479 


6.264 


4.175 


5.010 


5.845 


6.682 


4.436 


5.323 


6.210 


7.098 


4.697 


5.636 


6.575 


7.516 


4.958 


5.949 


6.941 


7.932 


5.219 


6.263 


7.306 


8.350 


5.479 


6.576 


7.671 


8.768 


5.741 


6.889 


8.037 


9.186 


6.001 


7.202 


8.402 


9.602 


6.262 


7.515 


8.767 


10.020 



2.088 
2.348 
2.609 
2.870 
3.131 
3.392 
3.653 
3.914 
4.175 
4.435 
4.696 
4.957 
5.218 
5.479 
5.740 
6.001 
6.262 
6.784 
7.306 
7.828 
8.350 
8.871 
9.393 
9.915 
10.437 
10.958 
11.480 
12.002 
12.524 



2.506 

2.818! 

3.132 

3.444 

3.758J 

4.070! 

4.384 ! 

4.696 1 

5.010 

5.324 

5.636 

5.950 

6.262 

6.576 

6.888 

7.202 

7.516 

8.142 

8.768 

9.394 

10.020 

10.646 

11.272 

11.898 

12.526 

13.152 

13.778 

14.404 

15.030 



liri. 



2.923 

3.287 

3.653 

4.018 

4.384 

4.749 

5.1141 

5.479 

5.845 

6.210 

6.575j 

6.9411 

7. 306' 

7.671 

8.036 

8.402 

8.767 

9.498 

10.228 

10.959 

11.690, 

12.421, 

13.151 

13.881 

14.612| 

15.343! 

16.073' 

16.804: 

17.535 



3.340 

3.756 

4.176 

4.592 

5.008 

5.432 

5.848 

6.264 

6.684 

7.100 

7.520 

7.936 

8.352 

8.772 

9.188 

9.608 

10.024 

10.860 

11.692 

12.528 

13.364 

14.196 

15.032 

15.864 

16.700 

17.536 

18.372 

19.204 

20.042 



WEIGHT OF ONE SQUARE FOOT OF SHEET IRON, ETC. 


a 


Thickness by the Birmingham (Eng.) Wire Gauge. 


S 


1 


2 


3 | 4 


5 


6 


7 | 8 | 9 | 10 , 11 12 


13 ] 14 | 15 


Iron.. 
Cop... 

Brass 


12 50 
14.50 
13.75 


12.00 
13.90 
13.20 


11.00110.00 
12.75 ll.<0 
12.10 11.90 


8.74 
10.10 
9.61 


8.12 
9.40 
8.93 


7.50 6.86 6.24 5.62 '5.00 4.38 
8.70 7.90 7.20! 6.50 5.80 5.08 
8.25 7.54|6.86i6.18 1 5.50i4.81 


3.75 3.12 2.82 
4.34 ! 3.60 13.27 
4.1213.43 3.10 


Thickness by the Wire Gauge. 




16 


17 18 


19 


20 


21 1 22 


23 


24 


25 


26 


27 


28 


29 


30 


Iron.. 
Cop.. 
Brass 


2.50 
2.90 
2.75 


2.18! 1.86 
2.52 i 2.15 
2.40 2.04 


1.70 
1.97 

1.87 


1.54 

1.78 
1.69 


1.40 1.25 
1.62 1.45 
1.54 1.37 


1.12 
1.30 
1.23 


1.00 
1.16 
1.10 


.90 


.80 
.92 

.88 


.72 
.83 
.79 


.64 
.74 
.70 


.56 
.64 
.61 


.50 
.58 
.55 



No. 1 Wire Gang^ is 5-16th ol an inch : No. 4 is 1-41 h : No. 11 is l-8th : 
No. n is l-12t»i ; No. 15 is l-14th ; No. 16 is l-16th; No. 17 is l-18th; No. 19 
Is 1-23- No. 22 is 1-32. 



142 



WEIGHT OF BAR IRON, ETC. 



RUSSIA SHEET IRON 

Measures 56 by 28 inches, and is rated by the weight per sheet. The 
numbers run from 8 to 18 Russi in lbs. per sheet. 8 Russian pounch 
equal 7.2 English pounds; 9=8.1 lbs.; 19=9 lbs.; 11=10 lbs.; 12=11.2 lbs. 
&c. 100 Russian lbs. equal fc'O lbs. English. 



WEIGHT OF ONE SQUARE FOOT OF PLATE IRON, ETC. 


CO «»-< 










CC«M 










a< O 










co O 










a^-d 




u 






aS4 




u 






o 08 a 


a 


ft 


CO 


T3 


U 03 a 


a' 


0> 

ft 


CO 


H3 


■H ft"" ' 


ft 


03 


c3 


.jH ft-H 


ft 


03 


o3 


£.S§ 


1— I 


© 




4) 


h.S§ 




o 
O 


pq. 


0> 


A 


2.5 


29 


2.7 


37 


A 


175 


203 


19.0 


25 9 


* 


50 


5.8 


5.5 


7.4 


* 


20 


23.2 


21.8 


29.6 


3 

tit 


75 


87 


8.2 


11.1 


1 


25.0 


28 9 


27.1 


370 


i 


10.0 


116 


10.9 


14.8 


f 


30.0 


34.7 


32.5 


44.4 


A 


125 


14 5 


13 6 


18 5 


1 


35.0 


40.4 


37 9 


57.8 


1 


15 


17.4 


16 3 


222 


1 


40 


46 2 


43 3 


69 2 



HEIGHT ONE FOOT IN LENGTH OF SQUARE AND ROUND BAR 

IRON. 



03 (U 


.9 


>d S3 


•* a 


a ,rH 


3 


o3 a 


S o 




o3 ft 

13 

a 1 


OD^ 


GC 


* 


.209 


A 


.326 


3 

8 


.470 


A 


.640 


i 

2 


.835 


A 


1.057 


£ 


1305 


H 


1.579 


* 


1.879 


t» 


2.205 


* 


2 558 


if 


2 936 


l 


3 340 


i* 


4.228 


H 


5.219 


1* 


6.315 


1* 


7.516 



a . 

O co 

*-* a 
o 



,164 

.25b 

.369 

.503 

.656 

.831 

1.025 

1.241 

1.476 

1732 

2.011 

2.306 

2 624 

3 321 

4 099 
4 961 
5.913 



^ 3 

© S-i 
WO 



If 



2* 
2} 
2f 
2* 
2| 
2| 
2| 
3 

8} 

3| 

3£ 

5| 



a . 

O co 

h a 

„ O 

03 ft 
3 

w 



<x> 



8.820 
10 229 
11.743 
13.360 
15.083 
16 909 
18 840 
20.875 
23.115 
25.259 
27.608 
30.070 
32.618 
35.279 
38.045 
40 916 
43.890 



a . 

O CO 

si 

3 ^ 
O 
3 



6 928 
8.043 
9 224 
10 496 
11846 
13283 
14.797 
16.396 
18 146 
19.842 
21.684 
23 653 
25.620 
27.709 
29 881 
32170 
34472 



m © 



3| 

31 

4 

4* 

4i 

4| 

4£ 

4| 

4} 

41 

5 

5t 

6| 
6 



03 ft 
3 

GC 



46.969 
50153 
53.440 
56.833 
60.329 
63 930 
67.637 
71445 
75 359 
79.378 
83.510 
92459 
101.036 
110.429 
120 243 



a . 

O co 

o 
P5 



36 895 
39.390 
41.984 
44 637 
47.385 
50.211 
53.132 
56113 
59.187 
62.344 
65 585 
72.618 
79 370 
86.731 
94.610 



The weight of bar iron being 1; 
" " cast iron =■ .95 
" steel, 1 OS 

" " copper, 1.16 



WEIGHT OF METALS, 



143 



CAST IBON.- 


—Weight of a 


Foot in 


Length op Square 








and Round. 








* 


SQUARE. 




ROUND. 


Size. 


Weight 


j Size. 


Weight 


Size. 


Weight 


Size. 


Weight 


Inches 
Square 


Pounds 


Inches 
Square 


Pounds 


Inches 
Diam. 


Pounds 


Inches 
Diam. 


Pounds 


K 


.78 


4K 


74.26 


K 


.61 


4K 


58.32 


% 


1.22 


5 


78.12 


% 


.95 


5 


61.35 


% 


1.75 


5K 


82.08 


% 


1.38 


5K 


64.46 


% 


2.39 


5K 


86.13 


% 


1.87 


5K 


67.64 


1 


3.12 


5K 


90.28 


1 


2.45 


5K 


70.09 


IK 


3.95 


5K 


94.53 


IK 


3.10 


5K 


74.24 


IK 


4.88 


5K 


98.87 


IK 


3.83 


5K 


77.65 


IK 


5.90 


5% 


103.32 


IK 


4.64 


5% 


81.14 


IK 


7.03 


5K 


107.86 


IK 


5.52 


5K 


84.71 


IK 


8.25 


6 


112.50 


IK 


6.48 


6 


88.35 


IK 


9.57 


6K 


122.08 


IK 


7.51 


6K 


95.87 


IK 


10.98 


6M 


132.03 


IK 


8.62 


6M 


103.69 


2 


12.50 


6% 


142.38 


2 


9.81 


6% 


111.82 


2K 


14.11 


7 


153.12 


2K 


11.08 


7 


120.26 


2K 


15.81 


7K 


161.25 


2K 


12.42 


7K 


129. 


2K 


17.62 


7K 


175.78 


2K 


13 84 


7K 


138.05 


2M 


19.53 


1% 


187.68 


2K 


15.33 


7K 


147.41 


2K 


21.53 


8 


200. 


2K- 


16.91 


8 


157-08 


2K 


23.63 


8K 


212.56 


2% 


18.56 


8K 


167.05 


2K 


25.83 


sy 2 


225.78 


2K 


20.28 


sy 2 


177.10 


3 


28.12 


8% 


239.25 


3 


22.18 


8K 


187.91 


3K 


30.51 


9 


253.12 


3K 


23.96 


9 


198.79 


3K 


33. 


9K 


267.38 


3K 


25.92 


9K 


210. 


3K 


35.59 


9V 2 


282. 


3K 


27.95 


9% 


221.50 


3K 


38.28 


9K 


297.07 


3M 


30.16 


9% 


233.31 


3K 


41.06 


10 


312.50 


3K 


32.25 


10 


245.43 


3% 


43.94 


iok 


328.32 


3K 


34.51 


iok 


257.86 


4K 


46.92 


10^ 


344.53 


3K 


36.85 


iom 


270.59 


4 


50. 


iok 


361.13 


4 


39.27 


10% 


283.63 


4K 


53.14 


n 


378.12 


4K 


41.76 


11 


296.97 


4K 


56.44 


11^ 


395.50 


4K 


44.27 


UK 


310.63 


4K 


59.81 


UK 


413.28 


4K 


46.97 


UK 


324.59 


*K 


63.28 


UK 


431.44 


4K 


49.70 


UK 


338.85 


4K 


66.84 


12 


450. 


4K 


52.50 


12 


353.43 


4K 


70.50 






4K 


55.37 









STEEL.— Weight of a foot in 


Length of 


Flat. 




Size. 


Thick. 


ihick. 


Thick, 


Thick, 


Size. 


Thick, 


Thick, 


Thick, 


Thick, 


1-1 In. 


3-8ths. 


1-2 in. 


5-8ths 


1-4 in. 


3 8ths 


1-2 in. 


5-8ths. 


Inch. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


]bs. 


lbs. 


In<*h. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


1 


.852 


1.27 


1.70 


2.13 


214 


2.13 


3.20 


4.26 


5.32 


IK 


.958 


1.43 


1.91 


2.39 


1% 


2.34 


3.51 


4.68 


5.85 


IK 


1.06 


1.59 


2.13 


2.66 


3 


2.55 


3.83 


5.11 


6.39 


IK 


1.17 


1.75 


2.34 


2.92 


3K 


2.77 


4.15 


5.53 


6.92 


IK 


1.27 


1.91 


2.55 


3.19 


3*X 


2.98 


4.47 


5.98 


7.45 


IK 


1.49 


2.23 


2.98 


3.72 


334 


3.19 


4 79 


6.38 


7.98 


2 


1.70 


.2.55 


3.40 


4.26 


4 


3.40 


5.10 


6.80 


8.52 


2\i 


1 1.91 


2.87 


3.83 


4.79 




1 









144 



WEIGHT OF METALS 



PATENT IMPROVED LEAD PIPE. 

SIZES AND WEIGHT PER FOOT. 



" "• g,1& JM"" ggj CaUbr. Wcgh. Ca|;bre Wdghtj Q 



Inches. 



lbs. oz 



Inches. 



fi 



I 



lbs. oz. 
1 4 

1 8 

2 

3 
13 

1 

1 8 

2 
2 12 

12 
14 



lbs. oz 
1 4 



2 





2 


4 


2 


8 


3 





4 





1 


8 


1 


12 



Inches. 
1 
1 

i 






Inches. 

2 
2 

4KJ 



per foot 



lbs. oz. 
5 



Sheet Lead.— Weight of a Square Foot, 2}£ t 3, 3)4, 4, 4}^, 5, 6, 
7, 8%, 9, 10 lbs., and upwards. 



COPPER, STEEL AND LEAD. 

WEIGHT OP A FOOT. 





BRASS. 


COPPER. 


STEEL. 


LEAD. 


Diam.& 
side of 


Weight 
of 


Weight 
of 


Weight 
of 


Weight 


Weight 
of 


Weight 
of 


Weight 


Weight 
of 


Square. 


Round. 


Square. 


Round. 


Square. 


Round. 


Square. 


Round. 


Square. 


In. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


K 


.17 


.22 


.19 


.24 


.17 


.21 






% 


.39 


.50 


.42 


.51 


.38 


.48 






i 


.70 


.90 


.75 


.96 


.67 


.85 






1.10 


1.40 


1.17 


1.50 


1.04 


1.33 






1.59 


2.02 


1.69 


2.16 


1.50 


1.91 






2.16 


2.75 


2.31 


2.94 


2.05 


2.61 






i 


2.83 


3.60 


3.02 


3.84 


2.67 


3.40 


3.87 


4.93 


% 


3.58 


4.56 


3.82 


4.86 


3.38 


4.34 


4.90 


6.25 


4.42 


5.6i 


4.71 


6. 


4.18 


5.32 


6.06 


7.71 


18 


5.35 


6.81 


5.71 


7.27 


5.06 


6.44 


7.33 


9.33 


6.36 


8.10 


6.79 


8.65 


6.02 


7.67 


8.72 


11.11 


1% 


7.47 


9.51 


7.94 


10.15 


7.07 


9. 


10.24 


13.04 


m 


8.66 


11.03 


9.21 


11.77 


8.20 


10.14 


11.87 


15.12 


m 


9.95 


J2.66 


10.61 


13.52 


9.41 


11.98 


13.63 


17.36 


2 


11.32 


14.41 


12.08 


15.38 


10.71 


13.63 


15.51 


19.75 


2% 


12.78 


16.27 


33.64 


17.36 


12.05 


15.80 


17.51 


22.29 


11.32 


18.24 


15.29 


19.47 


13.51 


17.20 


19.63 


25. 


15.96 


20.32 


17.03 


21.69 


15.05 


19.17 


21.80 


27.m 


% 


17.63 


22.53 


18.87 


21.03 


16.68 


21.21 


24.24 


30.86 


19.50 


21.83 


20.81 


26.50 


18.39 


23.41 


26.72 


34.02 


2% 


21.40 


27.25 


22.84 


29.08 


20.18 


25.70 


29.33 


37.34 


2% 


21.89 


29.78 


24.92 


31.79 


22.06 


28.10 


32.05 


40.81 


3 


25.47 


32.43 


27.18 


31.61 


24.23 


30.60 


34.90 


44.44 



CAST IRON. 



WEIGHT OP A SUPERFICIAL FOOT FROM % TO 2 INCHES THICK. 


Size. I Weight 


Size. 


Weight 


Size. 1 Weight 


1 Size. 


Weight 


Size. 1 Weight 


In. 1 Lbs. 
& J »-37 
% \ 14.06 
J4 18.75 


Ill; 

i 


Lbs. 
23.43 
28.12 
32.81 


In. | Lb*. 
1 1 37.50 
\}i 42.18 

1% 46.87 


In. 


Lbs. 
51.56 

56.25 
60.93 


In. Lbs. 
\% 1 65.62 
\% 70.31 
2 75. 



WEIGHT OF CASTINGS 



145 



CAST IRON. 

Weight of a Foot in Length of Flat Cast Iron. 



Width of 


Thick, 


Thick, 


Thick, 


Thick, 


Thick, 


Thick, 


Thick, 


Iron. 


%m. 


%m. 


Kin. 


%in. 


%'m. 


Xin. 


1 inch. 


Inches. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


2 


1.56 


2.34 


3.12 


3.90 


4.68 


5.46 


6.25 


2^ 


1.75 


2.63 


3.51 


4.39 


5.27 


6.15 


7.03 


2M 


1.95 


2.92 


3.90 


4.88 


5.85 


6. S3 


7.81 


2% 


2.14 


3.22 


4.29 


5.37 


6.44 


7.51 


8.59 


3 


2.34 


3.51 


4.68 


5.85 


7.03 


8.20 


9.37 


s* 


2.53 


3.80 


5.07 


6.34 


7.61 


8.88 


10.15 


3M 


2.73 


4.10 


5.46 


6.83 


8.20 


9.57 


10.93 


3K 


2.93 


4.39 


5.85 


7.32 


8.78 


10.25 


11.71 


4 


3.12 


4.6S 


6.25 


7.81 


9.37 


10.93 


12.50 


4^ 


3.32 


4.97 


6.64 


8.30 


9.96 


11.62 


13.28 


4M 


3-51 


5.27 


7.03 


8.78 


10.54 


12.30 


14.06 


±% 


3.71 


5.56 


7.42 


9.27 


11.13 


12.98 


14.84 


5 


3.90 


5.86 


7.81 


9.76 


11.71 


13.67 


15.62 


5^ 


4.10 


6.15 


8.20 


10.25 


12.30 


14.35 


16.40 


5^ 


4.29 


6.44 


8.59 


10.74 


12.89 


15.03 


17.18 


5% 


4.49 


6.73 


8.98 


11.23 


13.46 


15.72 


17.96 


6 


4. 08 


7.03 


9.37 


11.71 


14.06 


1(5.40 


18.75 



WEIGHT. 

To find the Weight of any Casting. 

Width in \ ins. x Thickness in £ ins., or vice versa, ~ 10 X 
Length, ft. = Weight, lbs. cast iron. 

For instance : to find the weight of a casting 31 ins. V 11 ins 
X 2 ft. 6 ins. long. 

13 X 9 -r 10 = 11-7 X 2-5 = 29-25 lbs. 

This rule is very useful, and can easily be remembered in the 
following form. 

Width in \ ins. X Thickness in £ ins. or vice versa, cut off 1 
figure for decimal, the result is lbs. per foot of length. 

For wrought iron add ^g-th to the result; for lead add J; for 



To find the Weight from the Areas. 

Area, sq. ins. X Length, ft. X H = Weight, lbs. cast iron. 
Multiplier for Cast iron 3-156 or 3^. 

" Wrought iron 3-812 or 3A. 

" Lead 4-854. 

" Brass 3-644. 

" Copper 3-87. 

Or, Area, sq. ins. X 10 = lb s. per yard for wrought iron. 



146 LOGS REDUCED TO BOARD MEASURE. 



LOGS REDUCED TO ONE INCH BOARD MEASURE. 

If the log is longer than is contained in the table, take any two 
lengths. 

The first column on the left gives the length of the log in feet. 
The figures under D denote the diameters of the logs in inches. 
Fractional parts of inches are not given. 

The diameter of timber is usually taken 20 feet from the butt. 
All logs short of 20 feet, take the diameter at the top, or small end. 

To find the number of feet of boards which a log will produce 
when sawed, take the length of feet in the first column on the left 
hand, and the diameter at the top of the page in inches. 

Suppose a log 12 feet long and 24 inches in diameter; in the left 
hand column is the length, and opposite 12 under 24 is 300, the 
number of feet of boards in a log of that length and diameter. 



to 


D. 


D. 


D. 


13. 


13. 


D. 


1). 


L>. 


I). 


1>. 


1). 


1). 


1). 


^s 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


19 


20 


21 


22 


23 


24 


10 


54 


66 


76 


93 


104 


170 


137 


154 


176 


194 


210 


237 


256 


11 


59 


72 


83 


102 


114 


131 


151 


169 


196 


213 


231 


26i 


270 


12 


64 


78 


90 


111 


124 


143 


164 


184 


214 


232 


252 


285 


800 


IS 


69 


84 


97 


120 


134 


154 


177 


199 


231 


251 


273 


308 


327 


14 


74 


90 


104 


129 


144 


166 


191 


214 


249 


270 


293 


332 


350 


15 


79 


96 


111 


138 


154 


177 


204 


229 


266 


2S9 


314 


855 


376 


16 


84 


102 


118 


146 


164 


189 


217 


244 


284 


808 


835 


379 


401 


17 


89 


108 


126 


155 


173 


200 


231 


259 


301 


327 


856 


402 


426 


18 


94 


114 


133 


164 


183 


212 


244 


274 


319 


346 


377 


426 


451 


19 


99 


121 


140 


173 


193 


223 


257 


289 


336 


365 


398 


449 


477 


20 


104 


127 


147 


182 


203 


236 


271 


804 


854 


384 


419 


473 


501 


21 


109 


188 


154 


191 


213 


247 


284 


319 


371 


403 


440 


497 


527 


22 


114 


139 


161 


200 


223 


259 


297 


334 


389 


422 


461 


520 


552 


28 


119 


115 


168 


209 


233 


270 


311 


349 


407 


441 


481 


542 


568 


24 


124 


151 


176 


218 


243 


2*2 


824 


364 


424 


460 


502 


563 


613 


25 


129 


157 


183 


227 


253 


293 


337 


879 


442 


479 


523 


591 


628 


26 


131 


163 


190 


236 


263 


305 


350 


394 


459 


498 


544 


615 


653 


27 


139 


169 


197 


245 


273 


316 


363 


409 


477 


517 


565 


639 


678 


28 


144 


175 


204 


254 


283 


828 


376 


424 


491 


536 


586 


663 


703 


29 


149 


181 


211 


263 


293 


339 


389 


439 


512 


555 


6<>7 


687 


728 


SO 


154 


187 


218 


272 


303 


351 


402 


454 


529 


574 


628 


711 


753 


3L 


159 


193 


225 


281 


313 


362 


415 


469 


547 


593 


649 


735 


778 





13. 


T). 


D. 


1). 


D. 


D. 


D. 


13. 


D. 


13. 


D. 


13. 


25 


26 


27 


28 


29 


30 


31 


32 


33 


34 


35 


36 


10 


283 


309 


339 


359 


377 


407 


440 


456 


486 


496 


543 


573 


11 


311 


340 


874 


396 


415 


447 


484 


502 


535 


546 


598 


630 


12 


340 


371 


408 


432 


453 


489 


528 


548 


584 


596 


653 


688 


13 


369 


404 


442 


469 


491 


530 


572 


594 


633 


646 


708 


746 


14 


897 


435 


476 


505 


529 


571 


618 


640 


6 2 


696 


762 


803 


15 


426 


465 


511 


5il 


567 


612 


662 


686 


731 


746 


817 


861 


16 


455 


496 


545 


578 


605 


653 


706 


732 


780 


796 


872 


919 


17 


483 


527 


579 


614 


613 


694 


751 


778 


829 


846 


927 


976 


18 


512 


558 


613 


650 


«81 


735 


795 


824 


878 


896 


981 


1034 


19 


541 


590 


647 


688 


719 


776 


839 


870 


927 


9(6 


1036 


1092 


20 


569 


621 


6^1 


724 


757 


817 


884 


916 


976 


996 


1091 


1148 


21 


598 


652 


716 


760 


796 


859 


928 


962 


1025 


1046 


1146 


1.06 


22 


627 


684 


750 


796 


834 


900 


972 


1008 


1074 


1096 


1200 


1264 


23 


665 


715 


784 


833 


872 


941 


1017 


1054 


1123 


1146 


1255 


1318 


24 


684 


746 


818 


869 


910 


982 


1061 


1100 


1172 


1196 


1310 


1376 


25 


713 


777 


853 


906 


948 


1023 


1105 


1146 


1221 


1246 


1365 


1434 


26 


742 


>*08 


887 


942 


986 


10«4 


1149 


1192 


1270 


1296 


1420 


1492 


27 


771 


839 


921 


979 


1024 


1105 


1193 


1238 


1319 


1336 


1475 


1550 


28 


800 


870 


955 


10i5 


1062 


1146 


1237 


1284 


1368 


1396 


1530 


1608 


29 


829 


901 


989 


1052 


1100 


1187 


1281 


1330 


1417 


1416 


1585 


1666 


80 


858 


932 


1028 


1088 


1138 


1228 


1325 


1376 


1466 


1496 


1640 


1724 


31 


8,s7 


903 


1057 


1125 


1176 1269 


1369 


1422 


1515 


1546 


1695 


1782 



EQUAL-SIDED TIMBER MEASURE. 147 



SOLID CONTENTS OF EQUAL-SIDED TIMBER. 

If the log is shorter than is contained in the table, take half or 
quarter of some length; if longer, double some length. The length 
of the log is given on the top of the columns, the diameter in the 
left hand column. To obtain the cubical contents of masts, spars, 
round logs, &c, subtract one-fourth from the contents. 



A 


L.ft. 


L. 


L. 


L 




L. 


L. 


T 




T. 




L. 


L 




L. 


L. 


9 


10 
2 (> 


11 


12 

3 


13 


14 


15 


16 




17 


18 




19 


20 


6 


2 3 


2 9 


3 3 


3 6 


3 


9 


4 





4 3 


4 


6 


4 9 


5 


7 


30 


3 4 


3 7 


4 


1 


4 5 


4 9 


5 


1 


5 


5 


5 9 


6 


2 


6 6 


6 10 


8 


4 1 


4 4 


4 10 


5 


4 


5 9 


6 2 


6 


7 


8 





8 5 


8 10 


9 3 


9 8 


9 


52 


5 9 


6 2 


6 


9 


7 4 


7 11 


8 


6 


9 


1 


9 8 


10 


a 


10 10 


11 5 


10 


6 2 


6 10 


7 8 


8 


4 


9 


9 8 


10 


4 


1L 





11 8 


12 


4 


13 


13 8 


1L 


7 


8 4 


9 3 


10 


1 


10 11 


11 9 


12 


7 


13 


5 


14 3 


15 


1 


15 11 


16 9 


12 


9 


10 


11 I. 


12 





13 


It 


15 





16 





17 


18 





19 


20 


13 


10 4 


U 7 


12 10 


14 


1 


15 3 


16 5 


17 


9 


18 


9 


19 11 


21 


1 


22 3 


23 5 


14 


12 2 


13 7 


14 11 


16 


4 


17 8 


13 11 


20 


3 


21 


7 


22 11 


24 


3 


25 7 


26 11 


15 


11 2 


15 


17 2 


18 


9 


20 4 


21 10 


23 


5 


25 





26 7 


28 


2 


29 9 


31 4 


16 


16 


17 10 


19 6 


21 


4 


23 1 


24 10 


26 


7 


28 


4 


30 1 


21 


10 


33 7 


35 4 


17 


18 


^0 


2 


24 


1 


26 1 


28 1 


30 


1 


32 


1 


34 1 


36 


1 


38 1 


40 1 


18 


20 3 


22 6 


21 9 


27 





29 3 


31 6 


83 


9 


36 





.S8 8 


40 





42 9 


45 


19 


22 6 


'25 


7 6 


30 


1 


32 7 


35 1 


37 


7 


41 


1 


43 7 


46 


1 


48 7 


52 


20 


25 


27 10 


30 10 


33 


4 


36 1 


38 10 


41 


7 


44 


4 


47 2 


50 





52 6 


55 9 


21 


2/ 7 


30 8 


53 9 


36 


9 


39 10 


42 11|46 





49 


1 


52 2 


55 


3 


58 4 


61 5 


22 


30 2 


33 6 


36 10 


W 


4 


43 8 


47 


50 


4 


53 


8 


57 


60 


4 


63 8 


67 


23 


33 


36 8 


40 4 


14 


1 


47 9 


51 5 


55 


1 


58 


9 


62 5 


66 


1 


69 9 


73 5 


21 


36 


40 


41 


48 





52 


56 


60 





61 





68 


72 





76 


80 


25 


9 


43 4 


48 1 


52 


1 


56 5 


60 9 


65 


1 


69 


5 


73 9 


78 


1 


82 5 


86 9 


26 


42 2 


48 11 


51 7 


56 


4 


61 


65 8 


70 


4 


75 





79 8 


84 


4 


89 


93 8 


27 


45 7 


50 8 


55 9 


60 


9 


65 10 


70 11 


76 





81 


1 


86 2 


91 


7 


96 8 


101 11 


28 


49 


51 5 


59 10 65 


4 


70 9 


76 2 


81 


7 


85 





92 5 


97 10 


103 3 


108 8 


29 


51 6 


58 4 


04 2' 70 


1 


75 11 


81 9 


87 


7 


93 


5 


99 3 


106 


1 


112 11 


117 9 


30 


55 9 


62 68 8.75 





81 3 


87 6 93 


9 


100 





106 3 


112 


6 


118 9 


125 e 



148 WHEEL, GEARING. 



WHEEL GEAEING. 

The Pitch Line of a wheel, is the circle upon which the pitch 
is measured, and it is the circumference by which the diameter, 
or the velocity of the wheel, is measured. 

The Pitch, is the arc of the circle of the pitch line, and is de- 
termined by the number of the teeth in the wheel. 

The True Pitch (Chordial), or that by which the dimensions 
of the tooth of a wheel are alone determined, is a straight line 
drawn from the centres of two contiguous teeth upon the pitch 
line. 

The Line of Centres, is the line between the centres of two 
wheels. 

The Radius of a wheel, is the semi-diameter running to the 
periphery of a tooth. The Pitch Radius, is the semi-diameter 
running to the pitch line. 

The Length of a Tooth, is the distance from its base to its 
extremity. 

The Breadth of a Tooth, is the length of the face of wheel. 

A Cog Wheel, is the general term for a wheel having a num- 
ber of cogs or teeth set upon or radiating from its circumference. 

A Mortise Wheel, is a wheel constructed for the reception 
of teeth or cogs, which are fitted into recesses or sockets upon 
the face of the wheel. 

Plate Wheels, are wheels without arms. 

A Rack, is a series of teeth set in a plane. 

A Sector, is a wheel which reciprocates without forming a full 
revolution. 

A Spur Wheel, is a wheel having its teeth perpendicular to 
"ts axis. 

A Bevel Wheel, is a wheel having its teeth at an angle with 
its axis. 

A Crown Wheel, is a wheel having its teeth at a right angle 
with its axis. 

A Mitre Wheel, is a wheel having its teeth at an angle of 45° 
with its axis. 

A Face Wheel, is a wheel having its teeth set upon one of its 
sides. 

An Annular or Internal Wheel, is a wheel having its teeth con- 
vergent to its centre. 

Spur Gear. — Wheels which act upon each other in the same 
plane. 

Bevel Gear. — Wheels which act upon each other at an angle. 

When the tooth of a wheel is made of a material different from 



WHEEL GEARING. 149 

that of the wheel, it is termed a Cog ; in a pinion it is termed a 
Leaf, and in a trundle a Stave. 

A wheel which impels another is termed the Spur, Driver, or 
Leader ; the one impelled is the Pinion, Driven, or Follower. 

A series of wheels in connection with each other is termed a 
Train. 

When two wheels act upon one another, the greater is termed 
the Wheel and the lesser the Pinion. 

A Trundle, Lantern, or Wallower is when the teeth of a 
pinion are constructed of round brass or solid cylinders set into 
two discs. 

A Trundle with less than eight staves cannot be operated 
uniformly by a wheel with any number of teeth. 

The material of which cogs are made is about one-fourth the 
strength of cast iron. The product of their bd 2 should be four 
times that of iron teeth. 

Buchanan: Rules that to increase or diminish velocity in a 
given proportion, and with the lea^t quantity of wheel-work, the 
number of teeth in each pinion should be to the number of teeth 
in its wheel as 1 : 3-59. Even to save space and expense, the ratio 
should never exceed 1 : 6. 

The least number of teeth that it is practicable to give to a wheel 
is regulated by the necessity of having at least one pair always in 
action, in order to provide for the contingency of a tooth breaking. 

The teeth of wheels should be as small and numerous as is con- 
sistent with strength. 

When a Pinion is driven by a -wheel, the number of teeth 
in the pinion should not be less than eight. 

When a "Wheel is driven by a pinion, the number of teeth 
in the pinion should not be less than ten. 

The Number of teeth in a wheel should always be prime to the 
number of the pinion; that is, the number of teeth in the wheel 
should not be divisible by the number of teeth in the pinion with- 
out a remainder. This is in order to prevent the same teeth 
coming together so often as to cause an irregular wear of their 
faces. An odd tooth introduced into a wheel is termed a hunting 
tooth or cog. 

To Compute the Pitch of a Wheel. 

Rule. — Divide circumference at the pitch-line by the number 
of teeth. 

Example. — A wheel 40 ins. in diameter requires 75 teeth ; what 
is its pitch ? 

3-1416X40 



75 



1-6755 ins. 



To Compute the True or Chordial Pitch. 

Rule. — Divide 180° by the number of teeth, ascertain the sine 
of the quotient and multiply it by the diameter of the wheel. 



150 WHEEL GEARING. 

Example. — The number of teeth is 75, and the diameter 40 
inches ; what is the true pitch ? 

180 

— = 2° 24' and sin. of 2° 24' = -04188, which V 40 = 1-6752 ins. 
/5 ^ 

To Compute the Diameter of a "Wheel. 

Rule. — Multiply the number of teeth by the pitch, and divide 
the product by 3-1416. 

Example. — The number of teeth in a wheel is 75, and the pitch 
1-675 ins.; what is the diameter of it? 
75X1-6755 

3-1416 = 10mw - 

To Compute the Number of Teeth in a Wheel. 

Rule. — Divide the circumference by the pitch. 

To Compute the Diameter when the True Pitch is 
given. 

Rule. — Multiply the number of teeth in the wheel by the true 
pitch, and again by -3184. 

Example. — Take the elements of the preceding case. 

75 X 1-6752 X -3184 = 40 ins. 

To Compute the Number of Teeth in a Pinion or Fol- 
lower to have a given Velocity. 

Rule, — Multiply the velocity of the driver by its number of 
teeth, and divide the product by the velocity of the driven. 

Example. — The velocity of a driver is 16 revolutions, the num- 
ber of its teeth 54, and the velocity of the pinion is 48 ; what is 
the number of its teeth? 

i?X»* = 18«». 

48 

2. A wheel having 75 teeth is making 16 revolutions per minute ; 
what is the number of teeth required in the pinion to make 24 
revolutions in the same time? 
16X75 



24 



= 50 teeth. 



To Compute the Proportional Radius of a Wheel or 
Pinion. 

Rule. — Multiply the length of the line of centres by the number 
of teeth in the wheel for the wheel, and in the pinion for the 
pinion, and divide by the number of teeth in both the wheel and 
pinion. 



WHEEL GEAKING. 151 

To Compute the Diameter of a Pinion, when the Di- 
ameter of the Wheel and Number of Teeth in the 
Wheel and Pinion are given. 

Rule. — Multiply the diameter of the wheel by the number of 
teeth in the pinion, and divide the product by the number of teeth 
in the wheel. 

Example. — The diameter of a wheel is 25 inches, the number of 
its teeth 210, and the number of teeth in the pinion 30; what is 
the diameter of the pinion ? 



25X30 
210 



3-57 inches. 



To Compute the Number of Teeth required in a Train 
of Wheels to produce a given Velocity. 

Rule. — Multiply the number of teeth in the driver by its num- 
ber of revolutions, and divide the product by the number of revo- 
lutions of each pinion, for each driver and pinion. 

Example. — If a driver in a train of three wheels has 90 teeth, 
and makes 2 revolutions, and the velocities required are 2, 10, 
and 18, what are the number of teeth in each of the other two? 

10 : 90 : : 2 : 18 = teeth in 2d wheel. 
18 : 90 : : 2 : 10 = teeth in Zd wheel. 



To Compute the Circumference of a Wheel. 

Rule. — Multiply the number of teeth by their pitch. 

To Compute the Revolutions of a Wheel or Pinion. 

Rule. — Multiply the diameter or circumference of the wheel or 
the number of its teeth, as the case may be, by the number of its 
revolutions, and divide the product by the diameter, circumfer- 
ence, or number of teeth in the pinion. 

Example. — A pinion 10 inches in diameter is driven by a wheel 
2 feet in diameter, making 46 revolutions per minute; what is the 
number of revolutions of the pinion? 

2X12X46 



10 



= 110-4 revolutions. 



To Compute the Velocity of a Pinion. 

Rule. — Divide the diameter, circumference, or number of teeth 
in the driver, as the case may be, by the diameter, etc., of the 
pinion. 



152 WHEEL GEARING. 

When there are a Series or Train of Wheels and Pinions. 

Rule. — Divide the continued product of the diameter, circum- 
ference, or number of teeth in the wheels by the continued pro- 
duct of the diameter, etc., of the pinions. 

Example 1. — If a wheel of 32 teeth drive a pinion of 10, upon 
the axis of which there is one of 30 teeth, driving a pinion of 8, 
what are the revolutions of the last ? 
32 30 960 ,„ 

YoX-8=-so= Urevolutwns ' 

Example 2. — The diameters of a train of wheels are 6, 9, 9, 10, 
and 12 inches ; of the pinions, 6, 6, 6, 6, and 6 inches ; and the 
number of revolutions of the driving shaft or prime mover is 10; 
what are the revolutions of the last pinion ? 

QX^X^X^X^X^O 583200 _ B , . 

* r: n ~ n = -,...,. — to revolutions. 

6 X ti X 6 X 6 X 6 7776 

To Compute the Proportion that the Velocities of the 
Wheels in a Train should bear to one another. 

Rule. — Subtract the less velocity from the greater, and divide 
the remainder by one less than the number of wheels in the train ; 
the quotient is the number, rising in arithmetical progression from 
the less to the greater velocity. 

Example. — What should be the velocities of 3 wheels to produce 
18 revolutions, the driver making 3 ? 

— - =i 7*5 = number to be added to velocity of the driver 

3 — 1 = 2 

— : 7-5 -f 3 = 10-5, and 10-5 -f 7-5 = 18 revolutions. Hence 3, 105, 

and 18 are the velocities of the three wheels. 

General Illustrations. 

1. A wheel 96 inches in diameter, having 42 revolutions per 
minute, is to drive a shaft 75 revolutions per minute ; what should 
be the diameter of the pinion ? 

96 V 42 rn „„ . . 
— Q — = 53 «76 inches. 
75 

2. If a pinion is to make 20 revolutions per minute, required 
the diameter of another to make 58 revolutions in the same time. 

58-7- 20 = 2-9 — the ratio of their diameters. Hence, if one to 
make 20 revolutions is given a diameter of 30 inches, the other 
will be 30 -r- 2-9 = 10-345 inches. 

3. Required the diameter of a pinion to make 12£ revolutions 
iu the same time as one of 32 inches diameter making 26. 

, g = 66-56 inches. 
12-5 



WHEEL GEARING. 153 

4. A shaft, having 22 revolutions per minute, is to drive another 
shaft at the rate of 15, the distance between the two shafts upon 
the line of centres is 45 inches ; what should be the diameter of 
the wheels ? 

Then, 1st. 22 -f 15 : 22 : : 45 : 26-75 = inches in the radius of the 
pinion. 

2d. 22 -f- 15 : 15 : : 45 : 18-24 = inches in the radius of the spur. 

5. A driving shaft, having 16 revolutions per minute, is to drive 
a shaft 81 revolutions per minute, the motion to be communicated 
by two geared wheels and two pulleys, with an intermediate shaft ; 
the driving wheel is to contain 54 teeth, and the driving pulley 
upon the driven shaft is to be 25 inches in diameter ; required the 
number of teeth in the driven wheel, and the diameter of the 
driven pulley. 

Let the driven wheel have a velocity of j/16 x 81 = 36, a mean 
proportional between the extreme velocities 16 and 81. 

Then, 1st. 36 : 16 : : 54 : 24 = teeth in the driven wheel. 

2d. 81 : 36 : : 25 : 11-11 = inches diameter of the driven pulley. 

6. If, as in the preceding case, the whole number of revolu- 
tions of the driving shaft, the number of teeth in its wheel, and 
the diameters of the pulleys are given, what are the revolutions 
of the shafts? 

Then, 1st. 18 : 16 : : 54 : 48 = revolutions of the intermediate shaft. 
2d. 15 : 48 : : 25 : 80 = revolutions of the driven shaft. 

To Compute the Diameter of a Wheel for a given Pitch 
and Number of Teeth. 

Rule. — Multiply the diameter in the following table for the 
number of teeth by the pitch, and the product will give the diam- 
eter at the pitch circle. 

Example. — What is the diameter of a wheel to contain 48 teeth 
of 2-5 inches pitch? 

15-29 X 2-5 = 38-225 inches. 

To Compute the Pitch of a Wheel for a given Diameter 
and Number of Teeth. 

Rule. — Divide the diameter of the wheel by the diameter in 
the table for the number of teeth, and the product will give the 
pitch. 

Example. — What is the pitch of a wheel when the diameter of 
it is 50-94 inches, and the number of its teeth 80? 
12 50-94 - . x 

2frl7 = 2tnche *' 



154 



WHEEL GEARING 



PITCH OP WHEELS. 



A TABLE WHEREBY TO COMPUTE THE DIAMETER OF A 
WHEEL FOR A GIVEN PITCH, OR THE PITCH FOR A GIVEN 
DIAMETER. 

From 8 to 192 teeth. 



No. of 


Diame- 


No. of 


Diame- 


No. of 


Diame- 


No. of 


Diame- 


No. of 


Diame- 


Teeth. 


ter- 


Teeth. 


ter. 


Teeth. 


ter. 


Teeth. 

119 


ter. 


Teeth. 


ter. 


8 


261 


45 


14-33 


82 


26-11 


37-88 


156 


49-66 


9 


2-93 


46 


14-65 


83 


26-43 


120 


38-2 


157 


49-98 


10 


3-24 


47 


14-97 


84 


26-74 


121 


38-52 


168 


50-3 


11 


3-55 


48 


15-29 


85 


27-06 


122 


38 84 


159 


50-61 


12 


3-86 


49 


15-61 


86 


27-38 


123 


39-16 


160 


50-93 


13 


4-18 


50 


15-93 


87 


27-7 


124 


39-47 


161 


51-25 


14 


4-49 


51 


16-24 


88 


28-02 


125 


39-79 


162 


51-57 


15 


4-81 


52 


16-56 


89 


28-33 


126 


40-11 


163 


51-89 


16 


542 


53 


16-88 


90 


28-65 


127 


40-43 


164 


52-21 


17 


5-44 


54 


17-2 


91 


28-97 


128 


40-75 


165 


52-52 


18 


5-76 


55 


17-52 


92 


29-29 


129 


41-07 


166 


52-84 


19 


6-07 


56 


17-8 


93 


29-61 


130 


41-38 


167 


53-16 


20 


6-39 


57 


18-15 


94 


29-93 


131 


41-7 


168 


53-48 


21 


6-71 


58 


18-47 


95 


30-24 


132 


42-02 


169 


53-8 


22 


7-03 


59 


18-79 


96 


30-56 


133 


42-34 


170 


54-12 


23 


7-34 


60 


19-11 


97 


30-88 


134 


42-66 


171 


54-43 


24 


7-66 


61 


19-42 


98 


31-2 


135 


42-98 


172 


54-75 


25 


7-98 


62 


19-74 


99 


31-52 


136 


43-29 


173 


55-07 


26 


8-3 


63 


20-06 


100 


31-84 


137 


43-61 


174 


55-39 


27 


8-61 


64 


20-38 


101 


3215 


138 


43-93 


175 


55-71 


28 


8-93 


65 


20-7 


102 


32-47 


139 


44-25 


176 


56-02 


29 


9-25 


66 


21-02 


103 


32-79 


140 


44-57 


177 


56-34 


30 


9-57 


67 


21-33 


104 


33-11 


141 


44-88 


178 


56-66 


31 


9-88 


68 


21-65 


105 


33-43 


142 


45-2 


179 


56-98 


32 


10-2 


69 


21-97 


106 


33-74 


143 


45-52 


180 


57-23 


33 


10-52 


70 


22-29 


107 


34-06 


144 


45-84 


181 


57-62 


34 


10-84 


71 


22-61 


108 


34-38 


145 


46-16 


182 


57-93 


35 


11-16 


72 


22-92 


109 


34-7 


146 


46-48 


183 


58-25 


36 


11-47 


73 


23-24 


110 


35-02 


147 


46-79 


184 


58-57 


37 


11-79 


74 


23-56 


111 


35-34 


148 


47-11 


185 


58-89 


3S 


1211 


75 


23-88 


112 


35-65 


149 


47-43 


186 


59-21 


39 


12-43 


76 


24-2 


113 


35-97 


150 


47-75 


187 


59-53 


40 


12-74 


77 


24-52 


114 


36-29 


151 


48-07 


188 


59-84 


41 


13-06 


78 


24-83 


115 


36-61 


152 


48-39 


189 


60-16 


42 


13-38 


79 


25-15 


116 


36-93 


153 


48-7 


190 


60-48 


43 


13-7 


80 


25.47 


117 


37-25 


154 


49-02 


191 


60-81 


44 


14-02 


81 


25-79 


118 


37-56 


155 


49-34 


192 


61-13 



Note. 
scribed. 



The pitch in this table is the true pitch, as before de- 



Ui 



WHEEL GEARING. 155 

To Compute the Number of Teeth of a Wheel for a given 
Diameter and Pitch. 

Rule. — Divide the diameter by the pitch, and opposite to the 
quotient in the table is given the number of teeth. (See p. 154.) 

Change Wheels in Screw-cutting Lathes. 

T S t tf 

—— f I = N ; y^ = S. T representing number of teeth in traverse 

screw ; S number in stud-wheel gearing in mandril ; t number in wheel 
upon mandril, and t f number in gearing upon stud pinion, gearing in T ; 
I number of threads per inch upon traverse screw ; N number to be cut. 

To determine the Proportion of Wheels for Screw-cut- 
ting by a Lathe. 

In a lathe properly adapted, screws to any degree of pitch, or 
number of threads in a given length, may be cut by means of a 
leading screw of any given pitch, accompanied with change wheels 
and pinions ; coarse pitches being efFected generally by means of 
one wheel and one pinion with a carrier, or intermediate wheel, which 
cause no variation or change of motion to take place. Hence the 
following 

Rule. — Divide the number of threads in a given length of the 
screw which is to be cut by the number of threads in the same 
length of the leading screw attached to the lathe ; and the quotient 
is the ratio that the wheel on the end of the screw must bear to 
that on the end of the lathe spindle. 

Example. — Let it be required to cut a screw with 5 threads in 
an inch, the leading screw being of \ inch pitch, or containing 2 
threads in an inch ; what must be the ratio of wheels applied ? 
5-f-2 = 2-5, the ratio they must bear to each other. 

Then suppose a pinion of 40 teeth be fixed upon for the spindle. 
40 x 2-5 = 100 teeth for the wheel on the end of the screw. 

But screws of a greater degree of fineness than about 8 threads 
in an inch are more conveniently cut by an additional wheel and 
pinion, because of the proper degree of velocity being more 
effectively attained ; and these, on account of revolving upon a 
stud, are commonly designated the stud-wheels, or stud-wheel and 
pinion ; but the mode of calculation and ratio of screw are the same 
as in the preceding rule. Hence, all that is further necessary is 
to fix upon any three wheels at pleasure, as those for the spindle 
and stud-wheels ; then multiply the number of teeth in the spindle- 
wheel by the ratio of the screw, and by the number of teeth in that 
wheel or pinion which is in contact with the wheel on the end of 
the screw; divide the product by the stud-wheel in contact with 
the spindle-wheel ; and the quotient is the number of teeth re- 
quired in the wheel on the end of the leading screw. 

Example. — Suppose a screw is required to be cut containing 25 



156 



WHEEL GEARING. 



threads in an inch, and the leading screw, as before, having two 
threads in an inch, and that a wheel of 60 teeth is fixed upon for 
the end of the spindle, 20 for the pinion in contact with the screw- 
wheel, and 100 for that in contact with the wheel on the end of 
the spindle ; required the number of teeth in the wheel for the 
end of the leading screw. 

60X12-5X20 



25 — 2 = 12-5, and 



100 



150 teeth. 



Or suppose the spindle and screw-wheels to be those fixed upon, 
also any one of the stud- wheels, to find the number of teeth in the 
other. 



60 X 12-5 

150 X 100 



20 teeth, or 



60X125X20 



150 



= 100 teeth. 



TABLE OF CHANGE WHEELS FOR SCREW-CUTTING. 

The leading Screw being J inch pitch, or containing 2 threads in an inch. 





Number of 
teeth in 


a 

*• o 
u O 

la 
a-" 


Number of teeth in 


a 
•a 
J| 

'- o 

M 


Number of teeth in 


1 . 

££ 

- a £ 

*" o 

°»- 

1- o 

S a 

3 — 


2 

13 

a 

II 


i - 

5-a 
g * 
►J 


.2 

ij-a 


if 

a. 9 


It 

a * 

a 8 

la 


1 
Is 


3 
a 


§1 

o .£ 
™ o. 


II 

a m 

u 


i 
s 

II 

gfs 
h4 


1 


80 


40 


8* 


40 


55 


20 


60 


19 


50 


95 


20 


100 


n 


80 


50 


8* 


90 


85 


20 


90 


19* 


80 


120 


20 


130 


1* 


80 


60 


8f 


60 


70 


20 


75 


20 


60 


100 


20 


120 


n 


80 


70 


9* 


90 


90 


20 


95 


20*- 


40 


90 


20 


90 


2 


80 


90 


n 


40 


60 


20 


65 


21 


80 


120 


20 


140 


2* 


80 


90 


10 


60 


75 


20 


80 


22 


60 


110 


20 


120 


2* 


80 


100 


10* 


50 


70 


20 


75 


22* 


80 


120 


20 


150 


2f 


80 


110 


11 


60 


55 


20 


120 


22f 


80 


130 


20 


140 


3 


80 


120 


12 


90 


90 


20 


120 


23f 


40 


95 


20 


100 


H 


80 


130 


12f 


60 


85 


20 


90 


24 


65 


120 


20 


130 


3* 


80 


140 


13 


90 


90 


20 


130 


25 


60 


100 


20 


150 


8f 


40 


150 


13* 


60 


90 


20 


90 


25* 


30 


85 


20 


90 


4 


40 


80 


13f 


80 


100 


20 


110 


26 


70 


130 


20 


140 


4* 


40 


85 


14 


90 


90 


20 


140 


27 


40 


90 


20 


120 


4* 


40 


90 


14* 


60 


90 


20 


95 


27* 


40 


100 


20 


110 


4f 


40 


95 


15 


90 


90 


20 


150 


28 


75 


140 


20 


150 


5 


40 


100 


16 


60 


80 


20 


120 


28* 


30 


90 


20 


95 


5* 


40 


110 


161 


80 


100 


20 


130 


30 


70 


140 


20 


150 


6 


40 


120 


16* 


80 


110 


20 


120 


32 


30 


80 


20 


120 


6* 


40 


130 


17 


45 


85 


20 


90 


33 


40 


110 


20 


120 


7 


40 


140 


17* 


80 


100 


20 


140 


34 


30 


85 


20 


120 


7* 


40 


150 


18 


40 


60 


20 


120 


35 


60 


140 


20 


150 


8 


30 


210 


18| 


80 


100 


20 


150 


36 


30 


190 


20 


120 



WHEELS AND GUDGEONS 



157 



Example 1. — Required the number of teeth that a wheel of 16 
inches diameter will contain of a 10 pitch. 

16 X 10= 160 teeth, and the circular pitch = -314 inch. 
Example 2. — What must be the diameter of a wheel for a 9 
pitch of 126 teeth ? 

126 -f- 9 = 14 inches diameter, circular pitch -349 inch. 
Note. — The pitch is reckoned on the diameter of the wheel 
instead of the circumference, and designated wheels of 8 pitch, 12 
pitch, etc. 



STRENGTH OF THE TEETH OF CAST IRON WHEELS AT A GIVEN 
VELOCITY. 



Pitch 
of teeth 
in inches. 


Thickness 
of teeth 
in inches. 


Breadth 
of teeth 
in inches. 


Strength of teeth 


in horse-power at 


3 feet per 
second. 


4 feet per 
second. 


6 feet per 
second. 


8 feet per 
second. 


3-99 


1-9 


7-6 


20-57 


27-43 


41-14 


54-85 


3-78 


1-8 


7-2 


17-49 


23-32 


34-98 


46-64 


3-57 


1-7 


6-8 


14-73 


19-65 


29-46 


39-28 


3-36 


1-6 


6-4 


12-28 


16-38 


24-56 


32-74 


315 


1-5 


6- 


10-12 


13-50 


20-24 


26-98 


2-94 


1-4 


5-6 


8-22 


10-97 


16-44 


21-92 


2-73 


1-3 


5-2 


6-58 


8-78 


1316 


17-54 


2-52 


1-2 


4-8 


5-18 


691 


10-36 


13-81 


2-31 


1-1 


4-4 


3-99 


5-32 


7-98 


10-64 


21 


1-0 


4- 


3-00 


4-00 


6-00 


8-00 


1-89 


■9 


3-6 


2-18 


2-91 


4-36 


5-81 


1-68 


•8 


3-2 


1-53 


2-04 


•06 


3-08 


1-47 


■7 


2-8 


1-027 


1-37 


2-04 


272 


1.26 


•6 


2-4 


•64 


•86 


1-38 


1-84 


1-05 


•5 


2- 


•375 


•50 


•75 


1-00 



WHEELS AND GUDGEONS. 

To find size of Teeth necessary to Transmit a given 
Horse Power. (Tredgold.) 

Horse power V 240 _, L1 . ± A . 

Strength of tooth. 



= Breadth, ins. 



Diameter of wheel, ft. X Revs, per min 

/ Strength . Strength 

K I : 5 jm — : = Pitch, ins. —rr — ; — : r 

\J Breadth, ins. (Pitch, ins.) 

The above rule will be found very suitable for a speed of cir- 
cumference of about 240 feet per minute. For speeds above, add 
to 240 half the difference ; for speeds below, deduct half the dif' 



158 WHEELS AND GUDGEONS. 

ference between 240 and the actual speed, the result being a suit- 
able multiplier. 

For instance : at 300 feet per minute, 60 being the difference, 
240 -f 30 = 270 multiplier. 

At 160 feet per minute, 80 being the difference, 240 — 40 = 200 
multiplier. 

The reason being that, with higher speeds, the friction, wear, 
and liability to shocks is increased, at lower speeds decreased, 
and the teeth may advantageously be proportioned accordingly. 

To find the Horse Power that any Wheel will Transmit. 

(Pitch, ins.) 2 X Breadth, ins. X Diameter, ft. X Revs, per minute 
Appropriate No. according to speed, as above 
= Horse Power. 

To find the Multiplying Number for any Wheel. 

(Pitch, ins.) 2 X Breadth, ins. X Diameter, ft. X Revs, per minute 
Horse Power 
= Multiplying No. as above. 



To find the Size of Teeth to carry a given Load in 
Pounds. 

Load, lbs. ~ 1120 = Breaking strength of teeth. 

Load, lbs. — 280 = Strength for very low speeds, and for steady 

work ; being 4 times the breaking strength. 
Load, lbs. —■ 140 = Strength for ordinary purposes of machinery ; 

being 8 times the breaking strength. 
Load, lbs. ~ 100 = Strength for high speeds and irregular work ; 

or when the teeth are exposed to shocks. 

As before, 



Strength „ ,,, . / Strength ^. , . 

— Breadth, ins. 4 / ~ — = Pitch, ins. 



(Pitch, ins.) 2 \/ Breadth, ins 



Vi 



*** 



WATER, 



159 



WATER. 

[See page 87.] 

To find the Quantity of Water that will be Discharged 

through an Orifice or Pipe in the Side or Bottom of a 

Vessel. 

. f . fl • v. j No. corresponding to height of surface 

Area ot orifice, sq. in. X \ above orifice) as per table 

= Cubic feet discharged per minute. 



Height of 

Surface above 

Orifice. 


Multiplier. 


Height of 

Surface above 

Orifice. 


Multiplier. 


Height of 

Surface above 

Orifice. 


Multiplier. 


Feet. 
1 


2-25 


Feet. 

18 


9-5 


Feet. 

40 


14-2 


2 


3-2 


20 


10- 


45 


151 


4 


45 


22 


10-5 


50 


16- 


6 


5-44 


24 


11- 


60 


17-4 


8 


6-4 


26 


11-5 


70 


18-8 


10 


7-1 


28 


12- 


80 


201 


12 


7-8 


30 


12-3 


90 


21-3 


14 


8-4 


32 


12-7 


100 


22-5 


16 


9- 


35 


13-3 







To find the Size of Hole necessary to Discharge a given 
Quantity of "Water under a given Head. 



Cubic feet water discharged 
No. corresponding to height, as per table 



Area of orifice, sq. in. 



To find the Height necessary to Discharge a given 
Quantity through a given Orifice. 



Cubic feet water discharged 
Area orifice, sq. inches 



No. corresp. to height, as per table. 



The Velocity of Water issuing from an Orifice in the 
Side or Bottom of a Vessel being ascertained to be 
as follows: 

^/ Height ft. surface above orifice X 5-4 = { ™°fl fj o ^ r ' ft - 

f Cubic feet discharged 
\ per minute. 

Do. Do. 



•/Height ft. X Area orifice, ft. X 324 



^Height ft. X Area orifice, ins. X 2.2 



160 GAUGING OF CASKS. 

It may be observed that the above rules represent the actual 
quantities that will be delivered through a hole cut in the plate ; 
if a short pipe be attached, the quantity will be increased, the 
greatest delivery with a straight pipe being attained with a length 
equal to 4 diameters, and being ^ more than the delivery through 
the plain hole; the quantity gradually decreasing as the length 
of pipe is increased, till, with a length equal to 60 diameters, the 
discharge again equals the discharge through the plain orifice. 
If a taper pipe be attached, the delivery will be still greater, 
being 1| times the delivery through the plain orifice; and it is 
probable that if a pipe with curved decreasing taper were to be 
tried, the delivery through it would be equal to the theoretical 
discharge, which is about 1.65 the actual discharge through a 
plain hole. 

To find the Quantity of Water that will run through 
any Orifice, the top of which is level with the Surface 
of Water as over a Sluice or Dam. 



/Height, ft. from water surface to ^ Area of water -» 
Ky bottom of orifice or top of dam j X passage, sq.ft. j X 256 

= Cubic feet discharged per minute. 

Or, 

Two-thirds area of water passage, sq. ins. X No. corresponding 
to height as per table = Cubic feet discharged per minute. 



To find the time in which a Vessel will empty itself 
through a given Orifice. 



y' Height, feet surface above orifice X Area water surface, sq. ins. 

Area orifice, square inch X 3*7 
= Time required, seconds. 

The above rules are founded on Bank's experiments. 



GAUGING OF CASKS. 

In taking the dimensions of a Cask, it must be carefully ob- 
served: 1st, That the bung-hole be in the middle of the cask; 2d, 
That the bung-stave, and the stave opposite to the bung-hole, are 
both regular and even within ; 3d, That the heads of the Cask are 
equal, and truly circular; if so, the distance between the inside 
of the chime to the outside of the opposite stave will be the head 
diameter within the cask, very near. 



GAUGING OF CASKS. 161 

Rule. — Take, in inches, the inside diameters of a cask at the 
head and the bung, and also the length ; subtract the head-diam- 
eter from the bung-diameter, and note the difference. 

If the measure of the Cask is taken outside, with callipers, from 
head to head, then a deduction must be made of from 1 to 2 inches 
for the thickness of the heads, according to the size of the Cask. 

1. If the staves of the Cask, between the bung and the head, are con- 
siderably curved, (the shape of a pipe,) multiply the difference 
between the bung and head by -7. 

2. If the staves be of a medium curve, (the shape of a molasses 
hogshead,) multiply the difference by -65. 

3. If the staves curve very little, (less than a molasses hogshead,) 
multiply the difference by -6. 

4. If the staves are nearly straight, (almost a cylinder,) multiply 
the difference by -55. 

5. Add the product, in each case, to the head-diameter; the 
sum will be a mean diameter, and thus the Cask is reduced to a 
cylinder. 

6. Multiply the mean diameter by itself, and then by the length, 
and multiply, if for Wine gallons, by 0034. The difference of 
dividing by 294, (the usual method,) and multiplying by -0034, 
(the most expeditious method,) is less than 500ths of a gallon in 
100 gallons. 

Example. — Supposing the head-diameter of a Cask to be 24 
inches, the bung-diameter 32 inches, and the length of Cask 40 
inches, what is the contents in Wine gallons ? 



Bung-Diameter, 
Head-Diameter, 

Difference, 
Multiplier, 


First 

32 
24 

8 

•7 

5-6 

24 

29-6 
29-6 


variety 


f. 

Brought 
Length, 


up, 876-16 
40 

35046-40 
•0034 


Head-Diam., 


14018560 
10513920 


Multiply by 


119-157760 



[Carry up] Square, 876-16 Ans. 119 galls. 1 pint. 

To obtain the contents of a similar Cask in Ale gallons, multiply 
35046-40 by -002785, and we get 97-6042, (or 97 gallons 5 pints.) 

Gauging of Casks in Imperial (British) Gallons, and 
also in United States Gallons. 

Having ascertained the variety of the Cask, and its interior 
dimensions, the following Table will facilitate the calculation of 
its capacity. 



162 



GAUGING OF CASKS. 



TABLE OF THE CAPACITIES OF CASKS, WHOSE BUNG DIAM- 
ETERS AND LENGTHS ARE 1 OR UNITY. 



H. 


1st Var. 


2d Var. 


3d Var. 


4th Var. 
•0016523 


H. 


1st Var. 


2d Var. 


3d Var. 


4th Var. 


•50 


•0021244 


•0020300 


•0017704 


•76 


•0024337 


•0024120 


•0022343 


■0022071 


•51 


•0021340 


•0020433 


•0017847 


•0016713 


•77 


•0024482 


•0024282 


•0022560 


•0022310 


•52 


•0021437 


•0020567 


•0017993 


•0016905 


•78 


■0024628 


•0024445 


•0022780 


•0022551 


•53 


•0021536 


•0020702 


•0018141 


•0017098 


•79 


•0024777 


•0024610 


•0023002 


0022794 


•54 


•0021637 


•0020838 


•0018293 


•0017294 


•80 


•0024927 


•0024776 


•0023227 


0023038 


•55 


•0021740 


•0020975 


•0018447 


•0017491 


•81 


•0025079 


•0024942 


0023455 


•0023285 


•56 


0021845 


0021114 


•0018604 


•0017690 


■82 


■0025233 


•002*110 


•0023686 


•0023533 


•57 


•0021951 


•0021253 


•0018764 


•0017891 


•83 


•0025388 


0025279 


•0023920 


•0023783 


•58 


•0022060 


•0021394 


•0018927 


•0018094 


•84 


•0025546 


•0025449 


•0024156 


•0024035 


•59 


•0022170 


•0021536 


•0019093 


•0018299 


■85 


•0025706 


0025621 


•0024396 


•0024289 


•60 


•0022283 


•0021679 


•0019261 


•0018506 


•86 


•0025867 


•0025793 


•0024638 


•0024545 


•61 


•0022397 


•0021823 


•0019433 


•0018715 


•87 


•0026030 


•0025967 


•0024883 


•0024803 


•62 


•0022513 


•0021968 


•0019607 


•0018925 


•88 


•0026196 


•0026141 


•0025131 


•0025063 


•63 


•0022631 


•0022114 


0019784 


•0019138 


•89 


•0026363 


•0026317 


•0025381 


•0025324 


•64 


■0022751 


•0022262 


•0019964 


•0019352 


•90 


•0026532 


•0026494 


•0025635 


•0025588 


•65 


•0022873 


•0022410 


•0020147 


•0019568 


•91 


•0026703 


•0026672 


•0025891 


0025853 


•66 


•0022997 


•0022560 


•0020332 


•0019786 


•92 


•0026875 


•0026851 


•0026150 


0026120 


•67 


•0023122 


•0022711 


•0020521 


•0020006 


•93 


•0027050 


•0027032 


•0026412 


0026389 


•68 


•0023250 


•0022863 


•0020712 


•0020228 


•94 


•0027227 


•0027213 


•0026677 


•0026660 


•69 


•0023379 


•0023016 


•0020906 


•0020452 


•95 


•0027405 


•0027396 


•0026945 


•0026933 


•70 


•0023510 


•0023170 


•0021103 


•0020678 


•96 


•0027585 


•0027579 


•0027215 


•0027208 


•71 


•0023643 


•0023326 


•0021302 


•0020905 


•97 


•0027768 


•0027764 


•0027489 


•0027484 


•72 


•0023778 


•0023482 


•0021505 


0021135 


•98 


•0027952 


•0027950 


•0027765 


•0027763 


•73 


0023915 


•0023640 


•0021710 


•0021366 


•99 


•0028138 


■0028137 


•0028044 


•0028043 


•74 


•0024054 


•0023799 


•0021918 


•0021599 


1-00 


•0028326 


•0028326 


•0028326 


0028326 


•75 


•0024195 


•0023959 


•0022129 


•0021834 













Divide the head by the bung diameter, and opposite the quotient 
in the column H, and under its proper variety, is the tabular 
number for unity. Multiply the tabular number by the square 
of the bung diameter of the given cask, and by its length, the 
product equals its capacity in Imperial gallons. 

Required the number of gallons in a Cask, (1st variety,) 24 inches 
head-diameter, 32 bung-diameter, and 40 inches in length ? 
32) 24-0 (-75 see Table for tabular No. 

•0024195 tabular No. for unity. 
32 X 32 is 1024 square of bung diam. 



•96780 
48390 
24195 

2-4775680 

40 Inches long. 



99-1027200 Imperial gallons. 
1-2 



Note. — Multiply- 
ing Imperial gallons by 
one and two-tenths (1-2) 
will convert them into 
U. S. gallons ; and U. S. 
gallons multiplied by 
•833 equal Imperial 
gallons. 



1982054400 
991027200 



118-92326400 United States gallons. 



ULLAGE OF CASKS. 



163 



To Ullage, or find the Contents in Gallons of a Cask 
partly filled. 

To find the contents of the occupied part of a lying cask in gallons. 

Rule. — Divide the depth of the liquid, or wet inches, by the 
bung-diameter, and if the quotient is under -5, deduct from the 
quotient one-fourth of what it is less than -5, and multiply the re- 
mainder by the whole capacity of the cask ; this product will be 
the number of gallons in the cask. But if the quotient exceeds -5, 
add one-fourth of that excess to the quotient, and multiply the sum 
by the whole capacity of the cask ; this product will be the num- 
ber of gallons. 

Example 1. — Suppose the bung-diameter of a cask, on its bilge, 
is 32 inches, and the whole contents of the cask 118-80 U. S. 
standard gallons ; required the ullage of 15 wet inches. 
32) 15.00 (-46875 -5 — -46875 = -03125 -M= -0078125 -46875 — 
•0078125 = -4609375X118-80 = 54-759375 U. S. gallons. 

Example 2. — Required the ullage of 17 wet inches in a cask of 
the above capacity. 

32)17-00(-53125— -5= -03125 -H 4=-0078125+-53125=-5390625 

X 118-80 = 64-040625 U. S. gallons. 

Pkoof.— 64-040625 -f 54-759375 = 118-80 gallons. 

To find the ullage of a filled part of a standing Cask, in gallons. 

Rule. — Divide the depth of the liquid, or wet inches, by the 
length of the cask; then, if the quotient is less than -5, deduct 
from the quotient one-tenth of what it is less than -5, and multiply 
the remainder by the whole capacity of the cask; this product will 
be the number of gallons. But if the quotient exceeds -5, add one- 
tenth of that excess to the quotient, and multiply the sum by the 
whole capacity of the cask; this product will be the ullage, or con- 
tents in U. S. standard gallons. 

Example. — Suppose a cask, 40 inches in length, and the capac- 
ity 118-80 gallons, as above: required the ullage of 21 wet inches. 
40) 21-000 (-525 — .5 = -025 -4-10 = -0025 + -525 = -5275 XH8-80 
= 62-667 U. S. gallons. 

Note. — Formerly the British Wine and Ale gallon measures were 
similar to those now used in the United States and British Colonies. 

The following Tables exhibit the comparative value between the 
United States and the present British measures. 



U. S. measure for 
wine, spirits, etc. 

42 galls. = 1 tierce, = 
63 " =1 hogsh.= 
126 " = lpipe, = 
252 « =ltun, = 



British (Im.) measure, 
galls, qts. pts. gills. 

= 34 3 1 3 
52 1 1 3 
104 3 1 3 
209 3 1 2 



U. S. measure for British (Im.) measure, 
ale and beer. galls, qts. pts. gills. 

9 galls. = 1 firkin, = 9011 

36 " =-1 barrel, = 36 2 3 

54 " =1 hogsh. = 54 3 1 

108 " =1 butt, = 109 3 1 3 



To convert Imperial gallons into United States Wine gallons, 
multiply the imperial by 1-2. To convert U. S. gallons into Impe- 
rial, multiply the U. States Wine gallons by -833. 

51 U. S. Ale gallons equal 60 Imperial gallons, therefore to 
convert one into other add or deduct ^th. 



164 ALLOYS AND COMPOSITIONS. 

ALLOYS AND COMPOSITIONS. 

Alloy is the proportion of a baser metal mixed with a finer or 
purer, as when copper is mixed with gold, &c. 

Amalgam is a compound of mercury and a metal — a soft alloy. 

All compositions of copper contract in the admixture, and all 
amalgams expand. 

In the manufacture of alloys and compositions, the more infusible 
metals should be melted first. 

In compositions of brass, as the proportion of zinc is increased, 
so is the malleability decreased. 

The tenacity of brass is impaired by the addition of lead or tin. 

Steel alloyed with T $oth part of platinum, or silver, is rendered 
harder, more malleable, and better adapted for cutting instruments. 

Any alloy which is slowly heated and gradually cooled (annealed, 
that is), is softer than when the compound is suddenly chilled; 
hence the hardness of chill-cast iron. 

In moulding, no casting of any kind should be removed until it is 
cooled down to within a few degrees of the atmosphere; and in open 
sand castings, a thick covering of sand should be applied to retain 
the heat. 

Neglect of this caution is certain to weaken the piece, and fre- 
quently is the cause of accidents. 



ALLOYS AND COMPOSITIONS, 



165 



ALLOYS 


AND COMPOSITIONS. 










i 

I 


3 




© 





a 


a 

"S 

< 


■d 

n 


u 

> 

m 


*3 




| 


"3 

© 

< 


Argentan 


55. 

50. 
3.7 

84.3 

75. 

79.3 

92.2 

80. 

88.8 

74.3 

50. 

88.9 

90. 

10. 

67. 

66. 

87**' 

86. 

67.2 

80. 

90. 

93. 

93. 

91.4 

65.1 

40.4 

80. 

69. 

72. 

87.5 

33.3 

40.4 

49.5 

81.6 

77. 

80. 

87.5 

77.4 

60."" 

56."" 

66. 

50. 

66.6 

33.4 

7.4 

73. 


24. 
2.5 

"6.2 

25. 
6.4 

20." 
11.2 
22.3 
31. 

2.8 

80." 
33. 
34. 

13." 
Ill 
312 

"5*5 

19 3 
25.4 
5.6 

33*4 
25.4 
24. 

*7." 

40." 

45!" 
21."' 

"7.4 

25.8 

12.3 


■'2.5 

89. 
10.5 

14.3 

7.8 

"3.4 

"8.S 

10. 

10. 

25*." 

'2.9 
1.6 
20. 

10. 
7. 
7. 
1.4 

"2.'6 

10.1 

31. 

26.5 

12.5 

18.4 

23. 

20. 

12.5 

15.6 

"m. 

80. 

22" 

29. 
33.4 

66.6 

28.'4 
4.4 
S Ma 
JSa 


21. 

40. 

19*' 

'i'3"' 
31.6 

33";3 
31.6 
24. 

gnes 


"2.5 

T.7 

"4.'3 

75. 

26!" 

80. 

69. 
s ia... 


"7.3 

257" 
25. 

16.7 

i'i!'" 

20"" 

15.5 
56.8 

'.""'4 


25"" 
8.3 

15.5 

.'4 "6 


2.48 

'mo 


".12 

ftar 


"'2.'5 

"O 

"2.6 
2.5 

ta"r"6 




Argentiferous 








Biass, common 




i> (• 




" hard.... 
" Mathematical 

instruments. 
" pinchbeck 





" red tombac 

" rolled 




" tutenag 




" very tenacious.. 
11 wbeels, valves... 
" white 









" yellow, fine 

Britannia metal 

When fused, add... 
Bronze, red 

" red 




" yellow 








" gun metal,large 
" small 

" Medals 

11 Statuary 




Chinese Silver 




Chinese white copper.. 
Church bells 








Clock bells 




Cocks, Musical bells.. 








" " fine 

Gongs 




House bells 




Lathe bushes 




Machinery bearings... 

'* " hard 

Metal that expands in 

cooling 

Muntz metal 




Pewter, best 

Printing characters 

Sheathing metal 




Speculum " 


V?, 


1( u 




Telescopic mirrors 

Temperf 


...... 


Type and stereotype 

plates 

White metal 




" " hard 

Oreide 


..... 




-am 


raon 


iac2 


•b y, 


uick 


-lim 


e J 


V.66 



*See page 164 for directions. fFor adding small quantitits of copper. 



ADDENDA TO PAET I 



EXPLANATION OP DIAGRAMS FOR SHEET- 
METAL WORK, ETC. 



To Describe a Pattern for a Four-piece Elbow.— Let ABED, 
Fig. 45, be the given elbow ; draw the line F C ; make F M equal in 
length to one-half the diameter of the elbow with F as a centre ; de- 
scribe the arc K L; divide the arc K L into three equal parts; draw 



'2- 45- 




A98 7 6 6 4 3 21] 



the lines F H and F I ; also the line I H ; divide the section H K 
into two equal parts, and draw the line F G ; draw the line A B at 
right angles to B C ; describe the semi-circle A N B ; divide the semi- 
circle into any number of equal parts; from the points draw lines 
parallel to B C as 1, 2, 3, etc. 

Set off the line ABC, Fig. 46, equal in length to the circumference 
of elbow A B ; erect the lines A F, B D and C E ; set off on each side 
of the line B t> the same number of equal distances as in the semi- 
circle A N B; from the points draw lines parallel to B D, as 1, 1, 2, 2, 
etc. ; make B D equal to B G ; make A F and C E equal to A J ; also 
(166) 



ROUND FURNACE PIPE 



167 



each of the parallel lines bearing the same number as 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 
etc. ; then a line traced through the points will form the first section ; 
make F G and E J equal to H I ; reverse section No. 1 ; place E at G 

Fig. 46. 




A S O 



1 2 3-4-5 8 7 



9 C 



and F at J ; trace a line from G to J ; make G H and J I equal to P 
O, Fig. 45, or D K, Fig. 46 ; take section No. 1, place F at H and E at I, 
and trace a line from H to I ; this forms sections No. 3 and 4. Edges 
to be allowed. 

Round Furnace Pipe.— It is most convenient to make the 
joints 14 inches long, as the pipe is so much more convenient to handle, 
and if each joint is beaded 2 inches from the end, then it will measure 
just 1 foot when the pipe is put together. This makes easy figuring, 
as all one has to do is to take out as many joints as there are feet of 
pipe required, or the bead can be put nearer the small end, which will 
make the pipe longer, and perhaps save putting on a short piece in 
order to get the desired length. Some furnacenien square the tin for 
round pipe ; that is, cut off the sides of the tin as well as the ends. 
This is not a good plan when the tin is kept on hand, as the cut edges 
are apt to rust, which makes it more difficult to solder the joints. A 
better way of making the pipe is to cut the sheets 19| inches long and 
then put in gores to make the desired size. By using this method the 
sheets can be made into any size of pipe required. An inspection of 
the engraving will show one how the gores are cut out of the sheet. 
For the 7-inch pipe six gores can be cut out of one sheet, but as the gore 
is so narrow, pieces can often be used. For 8-inch pipe three gores come 
out of a sheet, while the 9-inch takes about half of a sheet. Only one 
10-inch gore can be taken out of a sheet, but the piece left will do for 
8-inch or perhaps two can be grooved together and make a gore for 
the 10-inch. The 11-inch gore leaves a piece for 7-inch. When mak- 



168 



CROOKED FURNACE PIPE. 



ing 12-inch pipe it might be well to have the pattern so that two pieces 
will make a joint, as the " gore " is so near the length of a sheet that a 
mistake might be made and get two sheets together. When cutting 
out the gores they can be made slightly tapering if required, so one 

Fig- 47- 



J iof u + 



"5F 



i t t 1 i L 



joint will slip into another, but if a combined crimper and header is 
used, this is not necessary. When grooving the pipe together care 
should be had to have the pieces at the small end even, then there will 
be no difficulty in beading. 

Fig. 48. Fig. 49. 



T 




Side view of pipe. 



J* 


4' 


1 


1 c 




1 
i 


f 


8' 


1 
• 
1 

<; 

; 

1 


B 




• 
? 

l 

1 
» 
1 
1 
l 


h 


2' 


l 

• 


1 A 




1 
1 




J/ 


1 
1 
• 


J 


k 



Crooked Furnace Pipe.- 



Pattern for back of pipe, 
-When putting square furnace pipes 



ENCASING A SMOKE-PIPE. 



169 



in a house one frequently encounters places where curious-shaped 
pipes are required. A method recommended for most cases is to mark 
out on a piece of tin the side view of the pipe or bend to be made, as 
has been done in Fig. 48, the solid lines representing the desired shape, 
two pieces of which are required for the article. Allowance is then 
made for a single edge, as shown by the dotted lines, and the end view 
of the piece at D, which shows the edges turned up for double seaming. 
In Fig. 49 is shown the pattern for the back of the pipe. The width 
of pipe is shown by the solid lines F J and G H. To get the length 
of tin for A in Fig. 48, the distance from 1 to 2 is marked on the lines 
G H and F J as shown on pattern, then the distances from 2 to 3 and 3 
Fig. 50. 




End view of pipe, 
to 4 are marked in a similar manner as shown on pattern. As this 
piece is to be double seamed over on to Fig. 48, a double edge is allowed 
and formed, as shown at E in Fig. 49. The piece for the front of pipe 
is obtained in a similar manner. In Fig. 50 is shown an end view of 
the pipe, showing double seams on sides of pipe. It is not to be 
expected that this method of making the various shapes used in square 
pipes will be followed in all cases, for there is no one rule to be fol- 
lowed in making partition-pipes, but the idea intended to be conveved 
is that when a strange-shaped pipe is to be made, the furnaceman has 
taken one good step in advance after the side view has been marked 
out, as it is a simple affair to get the length of tin for the front and 
back. 




Encasing a Smoke-pipe.— Some furnaces are so situated that a 
13 



170 



TOP OF MILK-CAN, 



long smoke-pipe is necessary, and it may be that more heat escapes 
into the cellar than is wanted, especially if the cellar is used for stor- 
ing fruit and vegetables. In order to remedy this difficulty, it is a 
good plan to encase the smoke-pipe with a pipe that may be from 4 to 
6 in. larger than the smoke-pipe. Cold air can be admitted to the 
space between the casing and the smoke-pipe by a separate pipe, this 
pipe being connected with the cold-air box or the outer air, as desired. 
The other end of the casing can be tapered and the air taken to the 
room above by means of a pipe and register, as shown in the illustra- 
tion, Fig. 51. While, by having a jacket or casing about the smoke-pipe, 
as shown, a great deal of heat may be taken from the smoke by the air 
passing up through the casing to the room above, the draft of the fur- 
nace is not injured to a perceptible extent, as the casing keeps the 
smoke-pipe surrounded by warm air. It is not intended that the sup- 
ply or cold-air pipe is to be so large as to give more cold air than the 
smoke-pipe will heat, and to prevent this it would be well to put in a 
damper, so the supply could be regulated at will. 

Pattern for Top of Milk-can— Triangulation in Pattern-cut- 
ting' Explained. — The method employed in this case, as in others of 
a similar nature, is that of triangulatiou, as by this system the pattern 
for almost any irregular shape can be described. Eeferriug to the en- 
graving, Fig. 52, A B C D shows the elevation of can top for which the 
pattern is required, below which is drawn the plan divided into two 
equal portions by the line E F. In order to obtain the base of trian- 













Fi 


£• 5 2 - 












A 




B 


G 


;] 


3 












; 


X 


&•' 










j 


X 


\\ \ 




\\^ 


^ 


V 








; 


ELEVATION "x 


V\ ^ \ % 




\\ 


\ S 


\^ 


1 


;/ 


.'' 


i 


\ 


D Z, to d c 


b aJ £ 


J 7 6 


5 


4 3 21* 




i 


,- 


-. ■ 


\ 















\j PLAN \ 




Elevation, plan and diagrams of triangles. 

gles used in describing the pattern, the outer and inner half-circles on 
line E F are divided into the same number of equal parts, in the pres- 
ent instance six, and the points numbered 1 to 7 on the outer half- 
circle, and form 8 to 14 on the inner. Lines are now drawn from 2 to 
9, 3 to 10, etc., which gives the length of base of triangles represented 
by solid lines, and lines drawn from 2 to 8, 3 to 9, etc., give the length 
of base of triangle represented by dotted lines and lettered from a to/. 



TOP OF MILK-CAN. 



171 



At any convenient point draw H M in length equal to B N of eleva- 
tion, and lay off M K at right angles to it, and from the point M mark 
off the base line of triangles, as shown in plan ; that is, make M I equal 
to 8 1 of plan, M 7, 14 7, etc., and draw lines from these seven points 
to H. In a similar manner construct a corresponding section as 
shown by G I J, the distance from L to a being the same as from 8 to 
2 of plan, L to /the distance from 13 to 7 of plan. For convenience 
dotted lines can be drawn from the points a b c, etc., to G. 

To make a model illustrating the method used to describe the pattern 
for the can top, cut a piece of tin the shape shown in Fig. 54, which is 
to be spaced off the same as the plan, and bent on the lines A B and C 
D, as shown at K, Fig. 55, which is an end view. Pieces of tin repre- 
senting the triangles H M 2 to H M 6 are to be cut and soldered in 



Fig- 53- 



Fig. 54- 





Half of pattern. 



Pattern for model. 



Fig- 55- 



End view of Fig. 54. 

their respective positions on the model, as shown by the perspective of 
model in Fig. 56. It will be noticed that Fig. 54 has the two triangles 
H M 7 and H M 1. If desired, pieces of tin can be cut to represent the 
triangles G L a, etc., and soldered in position on model as shown by 
dotted lines a b c. After the model is finished it will present almost 
every view that could be desired. By wrapping a piece of paper 
about the model, and rubbing over with the hand, and then making 
the various lines with a pencil, a pattern similar to Fig. 53 will be the 
result. 

To describe the pattern proceed as follows : At any convenient place 
draw the straight line B 1 D 1 , Fig. 53, in length equal to B D of eleva- 
tion, H 1 of solid triangles, or 8 1 of model. The next step in obtain- 
ing the pattern is to get the length and location of line 2' 9' on pat- 
tern. To do this, with B 1 as centre, with G a of the first diagram, de- 



172 AN OVAL WITH SQUARE AND CIRCLE. 



scribe an arc which, intersected by a second arc struck from Di as cen- 
tre, with radius 1 2 of plan, thus establishing point 2' of pattern. 
Then, with radius H 2 of the second diagram, from 2' of the pattern 
for centre, describe an arc, which cut with another arc struck from 8' 
of the pattern as centre, and 8 9 of the plan as radius, thus locating the 
point 9' of pattern. This process is to be continued from 2' 3', 9' 3', 
until the location of all of the points in plan, from 1 to 7 and 8 to 14, 

Fig 57- 



Fig. 56. 




Model showing location of triangles 
on plan. 




The finished article. 



have been laid off. Referring to the model, it will be noticed that we 
first lay off the length of line 8 1, then an arc using length of dotted 
line a until it intersects with arc from 1 to 2, using 1 as a centre. Then 
the length of line 2 9 (second diagram H 2) is located by using the dis- 
tance from 8 to 9 of plan as an arc, thus establishing various points 
necessary, so that a line drawn free-hand from D 1 to C 1 , and from B l to 
A 1 , and being connected by straight lines from the points B 1 to D 1 and 
A 1 to C 1 , will give one-half of the desired pattern. 

Fig. 58. 

3^ 




To Draw an Oval with Square and Circle. — Draw the line 



EQUATIONS AND PROPORTIONS. 173 

from 1 to 2, which is the length of the oval. Draw line from centre to 
3, which is one-half the width, and draw line from 1 to 3. Set com- 
pass from 1 to centre, leave one point on 1 and mark 4. Set compass 
from centre to 3. Leave 1 end (of compass) in centre and mark 5. Set 
compass from 4 to 5, and from 6 draw head lines of circles 7 and 8, and 
7 and 8 from points 1 and 2. Set compass from 7 to 7, and mark 9 
from 7 7 and 8 8. Complete oval from 9. 

Explanation of Equations and Proportions. 

An equation is an expression of the fact that a certain quantity or 
combination of quantities is equal to and equalled by another quantity 
or combination of quantities. 

9 + 7 = 16 ; a b c = x ; 4 X 15 = 60, are equations, the values to the left 
of the = sign being called the first member and those to the right the 
second member of the equation. A little consideration will make it 
evident that the same or equal quantities may be added to or sub- 
tracted from both members, and that both members may be multiplied 
or divided by the same or equal values without destroying their 
equality. 

A term is a quantity which is united to other quantities by addition 
or subtraction ; & factor is a quantity which is united to other quanti- 
ties by multiplication. In the examples given 9 and 7 in the first are 
terms, 4 and 15 in the last are factors. 

A little further consideration will show that a term can be transposed 
from one member of an equation to another by changing its sign, 
without affecting the equality of its members. In the first example 
given, if 9 + 7 = 16, it is equally true that 9 = 16 — 7, or 7 = 16 — 9. 

It is also true that factors may be transposed from one member to 
another by making them divisors in the new member when they were 
multipliers in the old, and multipliers in the new when they were di- 
visors in the old. In the equation 4 X 15 = 60, if we reduce the first 
member by removing the 4, it is evident that its value is only I of what 
it was when multiplied by that number, and in order to make the 60 
equal to its new value we must divide by 4; so we see that if 4 X 15 = 
60, then 15 = 8 5 °, or 4 = §s. 

To solve an equation, we transpose so as to bring the known quanti- 
ties on to one side and the unknown quantity on to the other, showing 
the value of the unknown quantity by its equality with the known. 
Suppose in the first example the 9 were missing, represent it, say, by x 
and write 

z + 7 = 16 

x = 16 — 7, transposed 

x=9 

< Example. — A pump cylinder contains 225 square inches cross sec- 
tional area. How large a cylinder must be added to make the aggre- 
gate area equal to one cylinder of 340 square inches? 
Expressed as an equation this would be 

x + 225 = 340 
x = 340 — 225 
x= 115 

The greatest longitudinal section of a boiler contains 90 square feet. 
Its length is 15 feet. What is the diameter? 



174 EQUATIONS AND PROPORTIONS. 

Since the product of the length by the diameter will equal the area, 
we have 

15 x = 90 
90 
x = — 
15 
x = 6 
Proportions. — In books which treat of engineering subjects there is 
frequently seen an arrangement like the following: 
4 : 8 : : 12 : 24 
This is a statement of proportion, and is read, " as 4 is to 8 so is 12 to 
24," signifying that 4 bears the same relation to 8 as 12 does to 24; in 
this instance h. in each case. 

In the proportion as expressed above, the two outside figures 4 and 24 
are called the "extremes" and the included numbers 8 and 12 the 
" means," and the product of the means is always equal to the product 
of the extremes when the numbers are in proportion. 

4 X 24 = 96 
8 X 12 = 96 
If one of the numbers in the proportion is missing, we can determine 
its value by dividing it into the product of the other two. Suppose the 
24 gone in the above proportion and write 

4 : 8 : : 12 : x 
then x X 4 = 8 X 12 
x X 4 = 96 



4 

z=24 

Example. — In rigging up for indicating with a pendulum lever, the 
distance from the centre of the pin on which the pendulum swings to 
the point where the cord is attached to it must be to the whole length 
of the lever as the desired length of card is to the stroke of the engine. 
Suppose with a lever 96 inches long on an engine of 48 inches stroke it 
is desired to get a card 4 inches in length. How far from the point of 
suspension would you attach the cord ? 

48 : 4 : : 96 : x 
4X 96 

48 
x = 8 inches 
These proportions may be expressed as follows : 
4 12 48 96 

8 24 4 8 

Values are sometimes inversely proportional. An instance of this 
occurs when a gas expands by Mariotte's law, for when you double the 
volume instead of doubling the pressure, you halve it; and when you 
expand to three volumes you divide instead" of multiplying the pressure 
by three. The proportion here then is 

Pi : P 2 : : V 2 : Y l 



WEIGHT AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 175 

or, taking 2 cubic feet of air at 40 lbs. pressure and expanding it to 4 
cubic feet, we have for the new pressure : 

2 : 4 : : x : 40 

It will be noticed that as the product of the extremes equals the pro- 
duct of the means, the product of the first volume by the first pressure 
equals the product of the second volume by the second pressure, etc. ; 
or 

P V = P 1 V 1 -P 2 V 2 

and thus we see that in hyperbolic expansion the products of the press- 
ures and volumes are constant. 

Another case of inverse proportion is found in the lever, for the 
weight or pressure which will balance another on a lever is inversely 
proportional to its distance from the fulcrum or point upon which the 
lever turns. The shorter the distance the greater the pressure necessary 
to lift a certain load. As in the case of the volumes and pressures, the 
product of the weight necessary with a certain load to produce equilib- 
rium, multiplied by its distance from the fulcrum, will always be 
constant and equal to the product of the balanced load into its distance 
from the fulcrum. 

Weight and Specific Gravity. 

The specific gravity of a body is the ratio which the weight of the 
body bears to the weight of another body of equal volume adopted as a 
standard for the comparison of the weights of bodies. For solids and 
liquids, pure water at the mean temperature 62° F. is adopted as the 
standard body for comparative weight. For gases, dry air at 32° F., 
and under one atmosphere of pressure, or 14.7 lbs. per square inch, is 
the body with which they are compared. 

The specific gravity of bodies is found by weighing them in and out 
of water, according to the following rules : 

Rule 1. To find the specific gravity of a solid body heavier than 
water. — Weigh it in pure water at 62° F., and divide its weight out of 
water by the loss of weight in the water. The quotient is the specific 
gravity. 

Note. — The loss of weight in water is the difference of the weight in 
air and the weight in water, and it is equal to the weight of the quantity 
of water displaced, which is equal in volume to the body. 

Rule 2. To find the specific gravity of a solid body lighter than 
water. — Load it so as to sink it in pure water at 62° F., and weigh it 
and the load together, out of water, and in water ; weigh the load 
separately in and out of water ; deduct the loss of weight of the load 
singly from that of the combined body and load ; the remainder is the 
loss of weight of the body singly, by which its weight out of water is to 
be divided. The quotient is the specific gravity. 

Rule 3. To find the specific gravity of a body which is soluble in 
water.— Weigh it in a liquid in which it is not soluble, divide the 
weight out of the liquid by the loss of weight in the liquid and multi- 
ply by the specific gravity of the liquid. The product is the specific 
gravity of the body. 

Rule 4. To find the specific gravity of a liquid. — Weigh a solid 
body in the liquid and in water, as well as in the air, and divide the 
loss of weight in the liquid by the loss of weight in water. The quo- 
tient is the specific gravity. 



176 WEIGHT AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 

Rule 5. To find the weight of a body when the specific gravity is 
given. — Multiply the specific gravity by 

Multiplier. _ Weight of 

62.355 (the weight in pounds of a cubic foot of 

pure water at 62° F.) = 1 cubic foot in lbs. 
1683.60 = 1 cubic yard " " 

15.0 = 1 ." " cwts. 

0.75 =1 " " tons. 

Note. — As one cubic foot of water at 62° F. weighs about 1000 ounces 
(exactly 997.68 ounces), the weight in ounces of a cubic foot of any 
other substance will represent, approximately, its specific gravity, 
supposing water = 1000. 

If the last three places of figures be pointed off as decimals, the result 
will be the specific gravity approximately, water being = 1. 

The densities of metals vary greatly. Potassium and one or two 
others are lighter than water. PJatinum is more than twenty times as 
heavy. Lead is over eleven times as heavy; and the majority of the 
useful metals are from seven to eight times as heavy as water. 

Stones for building and other purposes vary in weight within much 
narrower limits than metals. With one exception, they vary from 
basalt and granite, which are three times the weight of water, to 
volcanic scoriae, which are lighter than water. The exception referred 
to is barytes, which is conspicuously the heaviest stone, being 4£ times 
as heavy as water. The sulphate of baryta is known as heavy spar. 

Amongst other solids, flint glass has three times the weight of water ; 
clay and sand twice as much ; coal averages one and a half times the 
weight of water; and coke from one to one and a half times. Camphor 
has about the same weight as water. 

Of the precious stones, zircon is the heaviest, having four and a half 
times the weight of water ; garnet is four times as heavy ; diamond 
three and a half times as heavy ; and opal, the lightest of all, has just 
twice the weight of water. 

Peat varies in weight from one-fifth to a little more than the weight 
of water. 

The heaviest wood is that of pomegranate, which has one and a third 
times the weight of water. English oak is nearly as heavy as water, 
and heart of oak is heavier ; the densest teak has about the same weight 
as water; mahogany averages about three-fourths, elm over a half, 
pine from a half to three-fourths, and cork one-fourth of the weight of 
water. 

Wood charcoal in powder averages one and a half times the weight 
of water; in pieces heaped, it averages only two-fifths. Gunpowder 
has about twice the weight of water. 

Of animal substances, pearls weigh heaviest, two and three-quarter 
times the weight of water ; ivory and bone twice, and fat over nine- 
tenths the weight of water. 

Of vegetable substances, cotton weighs about twice as much as water; 
gutta percha and caoutchouc nearly the same as water. 

Mercury, the heaviest liquid at ordinary temperatures, has over 
thirteen and a half times the weight of water, and bromine nearly 
three times the weight. The water of the Dead Sea is a fourth heavier 
and ordinary sea-water 2^ per cent, heavier than water; whilst olive 
oil is about one-tenth lighter, and pure alcohol aud wood spirit is a 
fifth lighter than water. 



WEIGHT AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 177 



Turning to gaseous bodies, water at 62° F. has 772.4 times the 
weight of air at 32° F. under a pressure of one atmosphere; and the 
specific gravity of air at 32° F. is 0.001293, that of water at 62° F. 
being = 1. Oxygen gas weighs a tenth more than air, gaseous steam 
weighs only five-eighths of air, and hydrogen, the most perfect type of 
gaseity, has only seven per cent, of the weight of air. Water has up- 
wards of 11,000 times the weight of hydrogen. 

One pound of air at 62° F. has the same volume as a ton of quartz. 

The specific gravity of alloys does not usually follow the ratio of 
those of their constituents; it is sometimes greater and sometimes less 
than the mean of these. The following are the specific gravities of the 
alloys as ascertained by Crookewitt : 

Specific gravity. 

Copper 8.794 

Tin 7.305 

Zinc 6.860 

Lead 11.354 

Alloys: — Copper 2, tin 5 7.652 

Copper 1, tin 1 8.072 

Copper 2, tin 1 8.512 

Copper 3, zinc 5 7.939 

Copper 3, zinc 2 8.224 

Copper 2, zinc 1 8.392 

Copper 2, lead 3 10.753 

Copper 1, lead 1 10.375 

Tin 1, zinc 2 7.096 

Tin 1, zinc 1 7.115 

Tin 3, zinc 1 7.235 

Tin 1, lead 2 9.965 

Tin 1, lead 1 9.394 

Tin 2, lead 1 9.025 

The following binary alloys have, on the one side, a density greater 
than the mean density of their constituents; and, on the other side, a 
density less than the mean density of the constituents. 

Alloys having a density greater 
than the mean. 
Gold and zinc. 



Gold and tin. 
Gold and bismuth. 
Gold and antimony. 
Gold and cobalt. 
Silver and zinc. 
Silver and lead. 
Silver and tin. 
Silver and bismuth. 
Silver and antimony. 
Copper and zinc. 
Copper and tin. 
Copper and palladium. 
Copper and bismuth. 
Lead and antimony. 
Platinum and molybdenum. 
Palladium and bismuth. 



Alloys having a density less than 
the mean. 
Gold and silver. 
Gold and iron. 
Gold and lead. 
Gold and copper. 
Gold and iridium. 
Gold and nickel. 
Silver and copper. 
Iron and bismuth. 
Iron and antimony. 
Iron and lead. 
Tin and lead. 
Tin and palladium. 
Tin and antimony. 
Nickel and arsenic. 
Zinc and antimony. 



178 WEIGHT AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY 



VOLUME, 



WEIGHT AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF 
SOLID BODIES. 



Familiar Metals. 



Platinum 

Gold 

Mercury, fluid 

Lead, milled sheet 

" wire 

Silver 

Bismuth 

Copper: — Sheet 

Hammered 

Wire 

Bronze : — 84 copper, 16 tin, gun metal 
83 " 17 " " " 

81 " 19 " " " 

79 " 21 " mill bearings 
35 " 65 " small bells... 
21 " 79 " " " ... 
15 "85 tin,speculurn metal 

Nickel, hammered 

" cast 

Brass: — Cast 

75 copper, 25 zinc, sheet 

66 " 34 " yellow 

60 " 40 " Muntz's ) 

metal J 

Brass wire.. 

Manganese 

Steel : — Least and greatest density.... 

Homogeneous metal 

Blistered steel 

Crucible steel... 

" steel, average 

Cast steel 

" steel, average 

Bessemer steel 

" steel, average 

mean for ordinary calculations 
Iron : — Wrought, least and greatest ) 

density J 

" common bar 

" puddled slab 

" various, irons tested ) 

by Kirkaldy J 

" various, average 

" common rails 

" rails, average 
" Yorkshire iron bar. 
" Low Moor plates, H 
to 3 inches thick.. 



Weight of one 


Specific 


cubic foot. 


gravity. 


Pounds. 


Water = 1. 


1342 


21.522 


1200 


19.245 


849 


13.596 


712 


11.418 


704 


11.282 


655 


10.505 


617 


9.90 


549 


. 8.805 


556 


8.917 


554 


8.880 


534 


8.56 


528 


8.46 


528 


8.46 


544 


8.73 


503 


8.06 


461 


7.39 


465 


7.45 


541 


8.67 


516 


8.28 


505 


8.10 


527 


8.45 


518 


8.30 


511 


8.20 


533 


8.548 


499 


8.00 


435 to 493 


7.729 to 7.904 


493 


7.904 


488 


7.823 


488 to 490 


7.825 to 7.859 


489 


7.842 


489 to 489.5 


7.844 to 7.851 


489.3 


7.848 


489 to 490 


7.844 to 7.857 


489.6 


7.852 


489.6 


7.852 


466 to 487 


7.47 to 7.808 


471 


7.55 


469.5 to 474 


7.53 to 7.60 


468 .to 486 


7.5 to 7.8 


477 


7.65 


466 to 476 


7.47 to 7.64 


470 


7.54 


484 


7.758 



487 



7.808 



WEIGHT AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 179 



Familiar Metals. 



Iron: — Wrought, Beale's rolled iron. 

" pure iron (excep- "j 

tional) by electro- > 

deposit(Dr.Percy) J 

" mean for ordinary ) 

calculations } 

Iron : — Cast,least and greatest density 
" white 



Weight of one 
cubic foot. 



gray 

Eglinton hot blast,first I 
melting J 

Eglintou hot blast, sec- 1 
ond melting j 

Eglinton hot blast, j 
fourteenth melting., j 

Rennie 

Mallet 

mean for ordinary cal- ) 
culations j 



Tin 

Zinc, sheet 

" cast 

Antimony 

Aluminium, wrought. 

" cast 

Magnesium 



Other Metals. 



Iridium 

Uranium 

Tungsten , 

Thallium 

Palladium 

Pthodium 

Osmium 

Cadmium 

Molybdenum 
Ruthenium... 

Cobalt 

Tellurium 

Chromium ... 

Arsenic 

Titanium 

Strontium 

Glucinum 

Calcium 

Rubidium 

Sodium 

Potassium 

Lithium 



Pounds. 
476 

508 



480 

378.25 to 467.66 
468 
449 

435 
435 

470 

435 to 444 
442 

450 

462 
449 
428 
418 
167 
160 
108.5 



1165.0 

1147.0 

1097.0 

742.6 

735.8 

660.9 

623.6 

542.5 

537.5 

536.2 

530.0 

381.0 

374.1 

361.5 

330.5 

158.4 

131.0 

98.5 

94.8 

60.5 

53.6 

37.0 



Specific 
gravity. 

Water = 1. 
7.632 

8.140 

7.698 

6.900 to 7.500 
7.50 

7.20 

6.969 
6.970 

7.530 

6.977 to 7.113 
7.094 

7.217 

7.409 

7.20 

6.86 

6.71 

2.67 

2.56 

1.74 



18.68 

18.40 

17.60 

11.91 

11.80 

10.60 

10.00 

8.70 

8.62 

8.60 

8.50 

6.11 

6.00 

5.80 

5.30 

2.54 

2.10 

1.58 

1.52 

0.97 

0.86 

0.59 



180 WEIGHT AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY 
Precious Stones. 



Name. 


Specific 
gravity. 


Name. 


Specific 
gravity. 


Zircon 


4.50 
3.60 to 4.20 

4.01 

3.98 

3.95 

2.73 

3.92 

3.95 
3.50 to 3.53 




3 52 






3 50 


Malachite 




3.50 






3 07 






2 96 


" aqua-mariue 

Amethyst 

Ruby 




2.84 


Jasper, onyx, agate.... 
Beryl 


2.6 to 2.7 
2.68 




Opal 


2.09 







Stones. 



Name. 



Cubic feet to 

one ton, 

solid. 



Weight of one 

cubic foot, 

solid. 



Specific 
gravity. 



Specular or red iron ore... 

Magnetic iron ore 

Brown iron ore 

Spathic iron ore 

Clydesdale iron ores 

Barytes 

Basalt 

Mica 

Limestone, magnesian — 

" carboniferous 

Marble, Paros , 

" African 

" Siberian 

" Pyrenian 

" Carrara , 

" Egyptian, green.. 

' French 

" Florentine, Sienna 

Trap, touchstone 

Granite, Sienite, Gneiss.... 

Gray 

Porphyry 

Alabaster, calcareous.... 

" gypseous 

Chalk, air-dried 

Slate 

Serpentine 

Potter's stone 



Cubic feet. 
6.84 
7.05 
9.16 
9.38 
11.76 
8.07 

14.7 to 12.0 
14.0 to 12.3 

12.6 
13.3 
12.7 
12.8 
13.2 
13.2 
13.2 
13.5 
13.6 
14.3 
13.2 
15.2 to 12.1 

12.8 to 11.8 
13.5 to 13.1 

13.0 
15.6 

14.9 to 14.1 
13.8 to 12.6 

12.8 
12.8 



Pounds. 

327.4 

317.6 

244.6 

238.8 

190.5 

277.5 
152.8 to 187.1 
160.3 to 182.7 

178.3 

168.0 

177.1 

174.6 

170.2 

170.2 

169.6 

166.5 

165.2 

157.1 

169.6 

147.1 to 184.6 

174.6 to 190.8 

166.5 to 171.5 

• 172.1 

144.0 
150 to 159 
162.1 to 177.7 

175.2 

174.6 



Water = 1. 

5.251 

5.094 

3.922 

3.829 
3.055 to 3.380 

4.45 

2.45 to 3.00 
2.57 to 2.93 

2.86 

2.69 

2.84 

2.80 

2.73 

2.73 

2.72 

2.67 

2.65 

2.52 

2 72 
2.36 to 2.96 
2.80 to 3.06 
2.67 to 2.75 

2.76 

2 31 

2.46 'to 2.55 
2.60 to 2.85 

2.81 
2.80 



WEIGHT AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 181 



Stones. 



Schist, slate 

" rough 

Lava, Vesuvian 

Talc, steat.te 

Rock crystal 

Quartz 

" crystalline 

" for paving 

" porous, for mill- 
stones 

Quartz, flaky, for mill- 
stones 

Flint 

Felspar 

Gypsum 

Lias 

Graphite 

Sandstone 

Tufa, volcanic 

Scoria, " 



Cubic feet to 

one ton, 

solid. 



Cubic feet. 

12.8 
19.9 to 12.9 
21.0 to 12.8 

13.3 

13.6 
13.8 to 13.3 

13.6 

14.4 

28.5 

14.1 

13.7 

13.8 

15.6 
16.0 to 14.7 

16.3 
17.3 to 14.3 
29.7 to 26.1 

43.3 



Weight of one 

cubic foot, 

solid. 



Pounds. 

174.6 

112.8 to 173.3 

106.6 to 175.2 
168.4 
165.2 

162.8 to 169.0 
165.2 
155.9 

78.6 

159.0 
164.0 
162.1 
143.4 
140.3 to 152.8 
137.2 

129.7 to 157.1 
75.4 to 86.0 

51.7 



Specific 

gravity. 



Water = 1. 

2.80 
1.81 to 2.78 
1.71 to 2.81 

2.70 

2.65 
2.61 to 2.71 

2.65 

2.50 

1.26 

2.55 

2.63 

2.60 

2.30 
2.25 to 2.45 

2.20 
2.08 to 2.52 
1.21 to 1.38 

0.83 



Sundry Mineral Substances. 



Name. 



Glass: Flint 

" Green 

Plate 

" Crown 

" St. Gobain 

" Common with base 

ofpotash 

" Fine with base of 

potash 

" Common with base 

of soda 

" Fine with base of 

soda 

" Soluble 

Porcelain: China 

Sevres 

Portland cement 

Concrete : 

P. cement 1, and 
shingle 10.. 



Cubic feet toj Weight of one 

one ton, | cubic foot, 

solid. solid. 



28.7 to 23. 



16.1 



Pounds. 

187.0 
168.4 
168.4 
155.9 
155.3 

153.4 

152.8 
152.8 

152.1 

77.9 
148.4 
139.7 

to 94 



139 



78 



Specific 
gravity. 



Water = 1. 
3.00 
2.70 
2.70 
2.50 
2.49 

2.46 

2.45 

2.45 

2.44 
1.25 

2.38 

2.24 

1.25 to 1.51 



2.23 



182 WEIGHT AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 



Sundry Mineral 

Substances. 



Concrete : P. cement, rub- 
ble and sand.. 
" P. cement 1, and 

sand 2 

" Roman cement 
1, and sand 2.. 

Mortar 

Brick 

Brickwork 

Masonry, rubble 

Marl 

" very tough 

Potash..... 

Sulphur 

Tiles 

Rock salt 

Common salt, as a solid 

Clay 

Sand, pure. 

" earthy 

Earth, Potter's 

" argillaceous 

" light vegetable 

Mud 

Wet, fine, sharp gravel, 

well pressed 

Wet, running mud 

Alluvial earth, pressed 

" " loose 

Plaster: 24 hours after 

using 

" 2 months after 

using 

Coke 

Phosphorus 

Alum 

Camphor 

Melting ice 



Cubic feet to 

one ton, 

solid. 



16.6 to 16.0 
17.6 

18.7 

20.6 
18.1 to 16.0 
20.4 to 19.5 
19.4 to 15.6 
22.4 to 18.9 

15.3 

17.1 

18.0 

18.0 
17.1 to 15.9 

18.7 

18.7 

18.9 

21.1 

18.9 

22.4 

25.7 

22.0 

18 
18.1 
24 
33 

22.6 



39 



25.7 

to 21. 
20.3 
20.9 
36.3 
39 



Weight of one 

cubic foot, 

solid. 



Pounds. 
135 to 140 

127 

120 

109 

124.7 to 135.3 

110 to 115 

115.3 to 143.4 

99.8 to 118.5 

146 

131 

124.7 

124.7 
131 to 140.7 

119.7 

119.7 

118.5 

106.0 

118.5 
99.8 
87.3 

101.6 

124 
122.5 

93.0 

67 

99.2 

87.3 

57.4 to 103.5 

110.4 

107.2 

61.7 

57.5 



Specific 
gravity. 



Water = 1. 
2.17 to 2.25 

2.04 

1.92 

1.75 
2.00 to 2.17 
1.76 to 1.84 
1.85 to 2.30 
1.60 to 1.90 

2.34 

2.10 

2.00 

2.00 
2.100 to 2.257 

1.92 

1.92 

1.90 

1.70 

1.90 

1.60 

1.40 

1.63 

1.99 
1.97 
1.49 
1.08 

1.59 

1.40 
0.92 to 1.66 
1.77 
1.72 
0.99 
0.922 



Woods. 



Name. 


Weight of one 
cubic foot. 


Specific 
gravity. 




Pounds. 

84.2 
64.8 

82.3 


1.35 


Boxwood 

" of Holland 


1.04 
1.32 







WEIGHT AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY 



183 



Woods. 



Boxwood of France 

Lignum vitse 

Ebony 

Ebony, green 

" black 

Oak, heart of 

" English 

" European 

" American, red 

Lancewood 

Rosewood 

Satin-wood 

Walnut, green 

" brown 

Laburnum 

Hawthorn 

Mulberry 

Plum tree 

Teak, African 

Mahogany, Spanish 

" St. Domingo 

Cuba 

Honduras 

Beech 

" with 20 per cent, moisture 

" cut one year 

Ash 

" with 20 per cent, moisture 

Acacia 

" with 20 per cent, moisture 

Holly 

Hornbeam , 

Yew 

Birch 

Elm 

" green 

" with 20 per cent, moisture 

Yoke elm" " " 

Rock elm 

Fir, Norway pine 

" red pine , 

" spruce 

" larch 

" white pine, English , 

" " " Scotch 

" " " " with 20 per 

cent, moisture 

" yellow pine , 

" " " American .., 



Weight of one 
cubic foot. 



40.5 



Pounds. 
56.7 
to 82.9 
70.5 
75.5 
74.2 
73.0 
58.0 
43.0 to 61.7 
54.2 
to 63.0 
64.2 
59.9 
57.4 
42.4 
57.4 
56.7 
55.5 
54.2 



41.* 



46.* 



53.0 

46.8 

34.9 

34.9 
to 53.0 

51.1 

41.2 

52.4 

43.7 

51.1 

44.9 

47.5 

47.5 
to 50.5 
to 46.1 

34.3 

47.5 

44.9 

47.5 

50.0 

46.1 
to 43.7 
to 43.7 
31.18 to 39.9 

34.3 

34.3 

30.6 
41.2 

28.7 



46.1 
44.9 



29.9 
29.9 



Specific 

gravity. 



0.91 
0.65 to 1.33 

1.13 

1.21 

1.19 

1.17 

0.93 
0.69 to 0.99 

0.87 
0.67 to 1.01 

1.03 

0.96 

0.92 

0.68 

0.92 

0.91 

0.89 

0.87 

0.98 

0.85 

0.75 

0.56 

0.56 
0.75 to 0.85 

0.82 

0.66 

0.84 

0.70 

0.82 

0.72 

0.76 

0.76 
0.74 to 0.81 
0.72 to 0.74 

0.55 

0.76 

0.72 

0.76 

0.80 

0.74 
0.48 to 0.70 
0.48 to 0.70 
0.50 to 0.64 

0.55 

0.53 

0.49 
0.66 
0.46 



184 WEIGHT AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 



Woods. 



Weight of one 
cubic foot. 



Specific 
gravity. 



American pine wood in cord (heaped) 

Apple tree 

Pear tree. 

Orange tree 

Olive tree 

Maple 

" with 20 per cent, moisture 

Service tree 

Cypress, cut one year 

Plane tree 

Vine tree 

Aspen tree 

Alder tree 

" with 20 per cent, moisture.... 

Sycamore 

Cedar of Lebanon.. 

Bamboo 

Poplar 

" White 

" with 20 per cent, moisture 

Willow 

Cork 

Elder pith 



21 

45.5 

45.5 

44.3 

42.4 

40.5 

41.8 

41.8 

41.2 

40.5 

37.4 

37.4 

34.9 

37.4 

36.8 
30.6 to 35.5 
19.5 to 24.9 

24.3 
20.0 to 31.8 

29.9 

30.6 

15.0 
4.74 



0.34 
0.73 
0.73 
0.71 

0.68 

0.65 

0.67 

0.67 

0.66 

0.65 

0.60 

0.60 

0.56 

0.60 

0.59 
0.49 to 0.57 
0.31 to 0.40 

0.39 
0.32 to 0.51 

0.48 

0.49 

0.24 

0.076 



Wood Charcoal. 



Wood Charcoal (as powder). 



Willow 

Oak 

Alder 

Lime tree 

Poplar 

Average of 5 charcoals 



Specific 
gravity. 




Wood Charcoal (as made, heaped). 


Weight of one 
cubic foot. 


Specific 
gravity. 




Pounds. 

15 to 15.6 

13.7 to 14.3 

12.5 to 13.1 

14 


0.24 to 0.25 


P,irch 


0.22 to 0.23 


Pine 


0.20 to 0.21 




0.225 









WEIGHT AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 185 
Wood Charcoal. 



Wood Charcoal (in small pieces, 
heaped). 



Walnut 

Ash 

Beech 

Yoke elm 

Apple tree. 

White oak 

Cherry tree 

Birch 

Elm 

Yellow pine 

Chestnut tree 

Poplar 

Cedar 

Average of 13 charcoals 
Gunpowder 



Weight of one 
cubic foot. 



Pounds. 
39.3 
34.3 
32.5 
28.7 
28.7 
26.2 
25.6 
22.5 
22.5 
20.6 
17.5 
15.6 
15.0 
25.3 
109.1 to 114.7 



Specific 
gravity. 



0.63 
0.55 
0.52 
0.46 
0.46 
0.42 
0.41 
0.36 
0.36 
0.33 
0.28 
0.25 
0.24 
0.405 
1.75 to 1.84 



Animal Substances. 



Names. 



Weight of one 
cubic foot, 



Specific 
gravity. 



Pearls 

Coral 

Ivory 

Bone 

Wool 

Tendon 

Cartilage 

Crystalline humor 

Human body 

Nerve 

Wax 

White of whalebone 

Butter 

Pork fat 

Mutton fat 

Animal charcoal in heaps 
11 



Pounds. 
169.6 
167.7 
119.7 
112.2 to 124.7 
100.4 

69.8 

68.0 

67.3 

66.7 

64.9 

59.9 

58.7 

58.7 

58.7 

57.4 

50 to 52 



2.72 
2.69 
1.92 
1.80 to 2.00 
1.61 
1.12 
1.09 
1.08 
1.07 
1.04 
0.96 
0.94 
0.94 
0.94 
0.92 

0.80 to 0.83 



186 WEIGHT AND SPECIFIC GEAVITY, 
Vegetable Substances. 



Names. 



Cotton 

Flax 

Starch 

Fecula 

Gum-Myrrh 

" Dragon 

" Dragon's blood.. 

" Sandarac 

" Mastic 

Eesin- Jalap 

" Guayacum 

" Benzoin 

" Colophony 

Amber, opaque 

" transparent.... 

Guttapercha 

Caoutchouc 

Grain, Wheat, heaped 

" Barley " 

" Oats, 



Weight of one 
cubic foot. 



Pounds. 
121.6 
111.6 
95.4 
93.5 
84.8 
82.3 
74.8 
68.0 
66.7 
76.1 
74.8 
68.0 
66.7 
68.0 
67.3 
60.5 
58.0 
46.7 
36.6 
31.2 



Specific 
gravity. 



1.95 
1.79 
1.53 
1.50 
1.36 
1.32 
1.20 
■1.09 
1.07 
1.22 
1.20 
1.09 
1.07 
1.09 
1.08 
0.97 
0.93 
0.75 
0.59 
0.50 



WEIGHT AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF LIQUIDS. 



Liquids at 32° F. 



Weight of 

one cubic 

foot. 



Weight of 
one gallon. 



Specific 
gravity. 



Mercury 

Bromine 

Sulphuric acid, maximum con 

centration 

Nitrous acid 

Chloroform 

Water of the Dead Sea 

Nitric acid of commerce 

Acetic acid, maximum conceu 

tration 

Milk 

Sea water, ordinary 

Pure water (distilled) at 39.1° F 
Wine of Bordeaux 

" ofBurgundy 

Oil, linseed 

" poppy • 



Pounds. 

848.7 
185.1 

114.9 

96.8 
95.5 
77.4 
76.2 

67.4 

64.3 

64.05 

62.425 

62.1 

61.9 

58.7 

58.1 



Pounds. 

136.0 

29.7 

18.4 
15.5 
15.3 
12.4 
12.2 

10.8 
10.3 
10.3 
10.0 

9.9 

9.9 

9.4 

9.3 



Water =1. 

13.596 

2.966 

1.84 
1.55 
1.53 
1.24 
1.22 

1.08 

1.03 

1.026 

1.000 

0.994 

0.991 

0.94 

0.93 



WEIGHT AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 187 



Liquids at 32° F. 



Oil, rape seed 

" whale 

" olive 

" turpentine 

" potato 

Petroleum 

Naphtha 

Ether, nitric 

" sulphurous .. 

" nitrous 

" acetic ... 

" hydrochloric. 

" sulphuric 

Alcohol, proof spirit 

" pure 

Benzine 

Wood spirit 



Weight of 

one cubic 

foot. 



Pounds. 
57.4 
57.4 
57.1 
54.3 
51.2 
54.9 
53.1 
69.3 
67.4 
55.6 
55.6 
54.3 
44.9 
57.4 
49.3 
53.1 
49.9 



Weight of 
one gallon. 



Pounds. 
9.2 
9.2 
9.15 

8.7 
8.2 
8.8 
8.5 

11.1 

10.8 
8.9 
8.9 
8.7 
7.2 
9.2 
7.9 
8.5 
8.0 



Specific 
gravity. 



Water = 
0.92 
0.92 
0.915 
0.87 
0.82 
0.88 
0.85 
1.11 
1.08 
0.89 
0.89 
0.87 
0.72 
0.92 
0.79 
0.85 
0.80 



WEIGHT AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF GASES AND 
VAPORS. 



Gases at 32° F. and un- 
der one Atmosphere 
of Pressure. 



Vapor of mercury (ideal) 

Vapor of broruiue 

Chloroform 

Vapor of turpentine 

Acetic ether 

Vapor of benzine 

Vapor of sulphuric ether 

Vapor of ether (?) 

Chlorine 

Sulphurous acid 

Alcohol 

Carbonic acid (actual)... 

" (ideal) 

Oxygen 

Air 

Nitrogen 

Carbonic oxide 

Olefiant gas 

Gaseous steam 

Ammoniacal gas 

Light carburetted hydro- 
gen 

Coal gas 

Hydrogen 



Volume of 

one pound 

weight. 



Cubic feet, 

1.776 

2.236 

2.337 

2.637 

4.075 

4.598 

4.790 

4.777 

5.077 

5.513 

7.679 

8.101 

8.157 

11.205 

12.387 

12.723 

12.804 

12.580 

19.913 

21.017 

22.412 

28.279 
178.83 



Weight of one cubic 
foot. 



In pounds, 
0.563 
0.447 
0.428 
0.378 
0.245 
0.217 
0.209 
0.206 
0.197 
0.1814 
0.1302 
0.12344 
0.12259 
0.089253 
0.0800728 
0.078596 
0.0781 
0.0795 
0.05022 
0.04758 

0.04462 
0.03536 
0.005592 



In ounces, 
9.008 
7.156 
6.846 
6.042 
3.927 
3.480 
3.340 
3.302 
3.152 
2.902 
2.083 
1.975 
1.961 
1.428 
1.29165 
1.258 
1.250 
1.272 
0.8035 
0.7613 

0.7139 

0.5658 
0.0895 



Specific 
gravity. 



Air = l. 

6.9740 
5.5400 
5.3000 
4.6978 
3.0400 
2.6943 
2.5860 
2.5563 
2.4400 
2.2470 
1.6130 
1.5290 
1.5186 
1.1056 
1.0000 
0.9736 
0.9674 
0.9847 
0.6220 
0.5894 

0.5527 
0.4381 
0.0692 



188 



BOILING POINTS. 



BOILING POINTS OF LIQUIDS. 

When the temperature of a liquid is raised to the boiling point the 
temperature ceases to rise, and remains constant and stationary, al- 
though the liquid continues to receive heat, until the whole of the 
liquid is evaporated. The boiling points of liquids are always greater 
when they contain matters in chemical combination, but the boiling 
point is not altered by the presence of foreign bodies, such as carbonate 
of lime and sand, mechanically mixed with them. The boiling points 
of various liquids under one atmosphere of pressure are given in the 
following table, the results of experiments by Eegnault, Dalton, etc. : 

Boiling Points of Liquids at Atmospheric Pressure. 



Description of liquid. 


Fah. 


Description of liquid. 


Fah. 




100° 

118 

140 

140 

145 

150 

173 

176 

212 


Sea water, average 


213° 




226 




Nitric acid 


248 






31fi 




Phosphorus 554 

Sulphur ! 570 








590 




Linseed oil. 


597 




648 









The high temperature of oil renders it useful for some tempering and 
cooking purposes. 

The steam from the surface of salt water contains no salt, and has an 
invariable temperature of 212° F., although the temperature of the 
solution is much higher. 

Boiling Points of Solutions of Soda, etc. 





Proportionate quantity 

in 100 parts by weight 

of water. 


Boiling 
points. 


Salts in sea water 


3.03 


213.2° F. 






In common water : 


31.5 

64 

52 

45 

57.5 

30 

60 

60 


213° F. 




216 




220 




220 




222 




224 




246 




256 







Elastic Force of Steam in Inches of Mercury. 
Common water } boiling point, 212° F. J elastic force, 30 inches. 



Sea water ....... 

Common water 
Sea water 



at 

boiling point, 

at 



212 c 
216 c 
216 c 



F. { " " 23.05 " 

F. J elastic force, 32.05 inches. 
F. I " " 24.06 " 



STEAM, LIGHT, HEAT, ETC. 



189 



Elastic Force of Steam in Inches of Mercury. 

Common water ) boiling point, 220° F. f elastic force, 35.1 inches. 

Sea water J at 220° F. j " " 26.5 inches. 

Hence the propriety of procuring, for steam, water in its purest state. 



RULES RELATING TO LIGHT, HEAT, COLD, ETC. 

Luminosity at High Temperatures. 

The luminosity or shades of temperature have been observed by M. 
Poulet by means of an air-pyrometer to be as follows : 



Shade. 



Nascent red 

Dark red 

Nascent cherry red. 

Cherry red 

Bright cherry red... 
Very deep orange... 

Bright orange 

White 

"Sweating" white., 
Dazzling white 



Temperature 


Temperature 


Centigrade. 


Fahrenheit. 


525° 


977° 


700 


1292 


800 


1472 


900 


1652 


1000 


1832 


1100 


2012 


1200 


2192 


1300 


2372 


1400 


2552 


1500 


2732 



A bright bar of iron slowly heated, in contact with air, assumes the 
following tints at annexed temperatures : 



1. Cold iron at about 

2. Yellow at 

3. Orange at 

4. Bed at 

5. Violet at 

6. Indigo at 

7. Blue at 

8. Green at 

9. Oxide gray {gris d'oxyde) at. 



Centigrade. 


Fahrenheit. 


12° 


54° 


225 


437 


243 


473 


265 


509 


277 


531 


288 


550 


293 


559 


332 


630 


400 


752 



To Determine the Temperature of Porcelain Ovens. — Accord- 
ing to Ch. Lauth pyroscopic masses adjusted to the various stages of 
temperature of the batches of hard porcelain and new porcelain {por- 
celaine nouvelle) have been for several years used at Sevres. For 
the preparation of the pyroscopes two glass compositions are required 
which consist of: 



I. 

Pegmatite 51 parts. 

Quartz sand 14 " 

Whiting 20 " 

Melted borax 15 " 



II. 

Pegmatite 70 parts. 

Whiting 30 " 



190 



STEAM, LIGHT, HEAT ETC. 



The following observations are constant : 

1. Composition I melts at exactly 1202° F. 

2. Composition I, 15 parts, } thoroughly mixed, 
Composition II, 85 " J melts at 2102° F. 

3. Composition II, 80 parts, ) ,, , 01A00 ^ 
Kaolin, 20 " melts at 2192 F - 



4. Composition II, 60 parts, 
Kaolin, 40 " 



melts at 2408° F. 



To be able to readily distinguish the pyroscopes standing alongside 
each other, the moistened mixtures are shaped into various forms — 
disks, pyramids, spheres, etc. The use of these pyroscopes is very advan- 
tageous for practical purposes. In regard to observations with metal- 
lic pyroscopes Mr. Lauth says: " The hard Sevres porcelain requires a 
temperature of 2732° F. because an alloy of 40 parts of gold with 60 of 
platinum melts completely at this temperature, while an alloy of 30 

f>arts of gold with 70 of platinum only falls together. The new porce- 
ain is finished at a temperature of 2462° F. At this temperature an 
alloy of 60 parts of gold and 40 of platinum melts, while one of 50 
parts of gold and 50 of platinum only falls together." 



COMPARATIVE RADIATING OR ABSORBENT AND 
REFLECTING POWERS OF SUBSTANCES. 



Substance. 



Lamp black 

Water 

Carbonate of lead 

Writing paper 

Ivory, jet, marble 

Isinglass 

Ordinary glass 

China ink 

Ice 

Gum lac 

Silver leaf on glass 

Cast iron, brightly polished.... 

Mercury, about 

AVrought iron, polished 

Zinc, polished 

Steel, polished 

Platinum, a little polished 

" deposited on copper 
" in sheet. , 



Power. 



Radiating 




or 


Reflecting. 


Absorbing. 




100 





100 





100 





98 


2 


93 to 98 


7 to 2 


91 


9 


90 


10 


85 


15 


85 


15 


72 


28 


27 


73 


25 


75 


23 


77 


23 


77 


19 


81 


17 


83 


24 


76 


17 


83 


17 


83 



m 



STEAM, LIGHT, HEAT, ETC 



191 



Substance. 



Tin 

Brass, cast, dead polished 

" hammered, dead polished... 

" cast, bright polished 

" hammered, bright polished. 

Copper, varnished 

" deposited on iron 

" hammered or cast 

Gold, plated 

" deposited on polished steel... 
Silver, hammered, polished bright 

" cast, polished bright 



Power 



Radiating 




or 


Reflecting. 


absorbing. 




15 


85 


11 


89 


9 


91 


7 


93 


7 


93 


14 


86 


7 


93 


7 


93 


5 


95 


3 


97 


3 


97 


3 


97 



RELATIVE INTERNAL HEAT-CONDUCTING POWER OF 
BODIES. 


Substance. 


Relative 

conducting 

power. 


Substance. 


Relative 

conducting 

power. 


Gold . 


1000 
981 
973 
892 
749 
562 
374 


Zinc 


363 


Platinum ... 


Tin 


304 


Silver 


Lead 


180 




Marble 

Porcelain 


24 


Brass 


12 




Terracotta 


11 













LINEAR EXPANSION OF SOLIDS BY HEAT, BETWEEN 
32° AND 212° F. 



Metals. 


Expansion 
between 
32° and 
212° F. in 
common 
fractions. 


Expansion 
between 
32° and 

212° F.in 

a length 

=-100. 


Expansion 

between 

32° and 

212° F.in 

a length of 

10 feet. 


Expansion 

for 1° F.in 

a length 

of 100 feet. 


Zinc, sheet 


"si's 
sir 

3BT 


Length = 100. 

0.29416 
0.31083 
0.28484 


Inch. 

0.353 
0.374 
0.342 


Inch. 

0.0196 
0.0207 
0.0190 


" forged 

Lead 





192 



STEAM, LIGHT, HEAT, ETC. 



LINEAR EXPANSION OP SOLIDS BY HEAT, BETWEEN 
32° AND 212° F. 



Metals. 



Zinc 8 + 1 tin, slightly 
hammered 

White solder : tin l,lead 2. 

Tin, grain 

Tin 

Silver 

Speculum metal 

Brass 

Copper 

Gun metal : 16 copper, 1 
tin 

Gun metal : 8 copper, 1 
tin 

Yellow brass: rod 

" " trough form 

Gold : Paris standard, an- 
nealed 

Gold : Paris standard, un- 
aniiealed 

Bismuth 

Iron, forged 

" wire 

Steel rod, 5 feet long 

" " tempered 

" " not tempered... 

Cast iron rod, 5 feet long- 
Antimony 

Palladium 

Platinum 



Expansion 
between 
32° and 

212° F. in 
common 
fractions. 



B2* 

sis 



sis 

B2S 



1 

rthrs 



Expansion 
between 
32° and 

212° F. in 
a length 
= 100. 



Length=100. 

0.26917 
0.25053 
0.24833 
0.21730 
0.19075 
0.19333 
0..8782 
0.17220 

0.19083 

0.18167 
0.18930 
0.18945 

0.15153 

0.15516 
0.13917 
0.12204 
0.12350 
0.11450 
0.12396 
0.10792 
0.11100 
0.10833 
0.10000 
0.8570 



Expansion 

between 

32° and 

212° F. in 

a length of 

10 feet. 



0.322 
0.301 
0.298 
0.260 
0.229 
0.232 
0.225 
0.207 

0.229 

0.218 
0.227 
0.227 

0.181 

0.186 
0.167 
0.146 
0.148 
0.137 
0.149 
0.130 
0.133 
0.130 
0.120 
0.103 



Expansion 

forl°F.in 

a length 

of 100 feet. 



0.0179 
0.0167 
0.0166 
0.0145 
0.0127 
0.0130 
0.0125 
0.0115 

0.0127 

0.0121 
0.0126 
0.0126 

0.0101 

0.0103 

0.00928 

0.00814 

0.00823 

0.00763 

0.00826 

0.00719 

0.00740 

0.00722 

0.00667 

0.00571 



From 0° to 300° C. 










(32° to 572° F.) 










Copper j QO f0 300 o c 


sis 


0.17182 


0.206 


0.0115 


six 


0.18832 


0.226 


0.00418 


Iron f0°tol00°C... 
I 0° to 300° C... 


sis 


0.11821 


0.142 


0.00788 


B&T 


0.14684 


0.176 


0.00326 


Platinum { 0° to 100° C... 
Platinum j ()0 tQ SQQO c 


TT53 


0.08842 ' 


0.106 


0.00589 


TTsVs 


0.09183 


0.111 


0.00204 



Ice. 



0.0333 



STEAM, LIGHT, HEAT, ETC 



193 





Expansion 


Expansion 


Expansion 






1 between 


between 


between 


Expansion 


Glass. 


32° and 


32° and 


32° and 


for 1° F. 


!212° F. in 


,212° F. in 


212° F. in 


in a length 




1 common 


a length 


a length 


of 100 feet. 




[ fractions. 


= 100. 


of 10 feet. 






1 


L'gth=ioo. 


Inch. 


Inch. 




1248 


0.0S117 
0.08720 


0.974 
0.105 


0.00541 


French glass, with lead.. 


0.00581 


Glass tube, without lead.. 


IW3T5 


0.09175 


0.110 


0.00612 


Glass of St. Gobain 


| vhi 


0.0S909 


0.107 


0.00594 


Barometer tubes (Smea 


■ 








ton) 


: ttttt 


0.08333 


0.100 


0.00555 


Glass tube (Roy) 


raW 


0.07755 


0.0931 


0.00517 


Glass rod, solid (Rov) 


1 rsV? 


0.08083 


0.0970 


0.00539 


Glass (Dulong and Petit) 


J IT 1 *! 


0.08613 


0.103 


0.00574 


" (0° to 100° C.) 


.1 iifes 


0.09484 


0.114 


0.00032 


" (0° to 300° C.) 


J ^S7 


0.10108 


0.121 


0.00674 




Ston] 


ES. 








Initial 


Final 


Expansion 


Expansion 
for 1° F 


Name. 


tempera- 


tempera- 
ture. 


in a length 
= 100. 


in a length 
of 100 feet. 








Length=100. 


Inch. 


Granite 


45° F. 


220° F. 


0.2916 


0.0200 


" 


45 


100 


0.0416 


0.00908 


Clay-slate 


46 


87 


0.0416 


0.0122 


« 


46 


104 


0.0693 


0.0143 




46 


95 


0.1695 


0415 


Micaceous sandstone 


52 


200 


0.1736 


0.0141 


« «( 


52 


200 


0.1041 


0.00844 




52 


150 


0.0832 


0.0102 


<( ii 


52 


100 


0.0520 


0.01300 


<( (C 


45 


100 


0.0416 


0.00908 


(( 11 


45 


260 


0.1458 


0.00814 


Carrara marble ..... 


32 
32 


212 
212 


0.0849 
0.0568 


00566 


Sost " 


0.00380 


Stock brick 


52 


260 


0.2500 


00144 







Frig-oriflc Mixtures. — For the production of intense cold, mixtures 
of various salts and acids in various proportions with water are very effec- 
tive. But more intense degrees of cold are produced with snow and ice. 

The annexed table contains the ordinary mixtures for the artificial 
production of cold, known as freezing mixtures. The first part of the 
table comprises mixtures of salts and acids with each other and with 
water; the second part, mixtures of salts and acids with snow or ice. 

The blanks in the third column of the table indicate that the ther- 
mometer sinks to the degrees named in the second column, but never 
lower, whatever may be the initial temperature of the material when 
mixed. 



194 



STEAM, LIGHT, HEAT, ETC, 



The vessels containing the mixture should be cooled before the ele- 
ments are put into them. 

If the materials of the mixtures enumerated in the first part of the 
table be mixed at a higher temperature than that given in the table, 
namely 50° F., the fall of temperature is greater. Thus, if the most 
powerful of these mixtures, No. 11, be made at the temperature 80° F., 
it will sink the thermometer to + 2°, making a fall of 78 degrees as 
against 71 degrees in the table. 

The third part of the table contains frigorific mixtures partly- 
selected from the other parts, and combined so as to extend the cold to 
the extreme degree, — 91° F. The materials should be cooled previ- 
ously to being mixed to the initial temperature, by mixtures taken 
from previous parts of the table. 

FRIGORIFIC MIXTURES. 

Fikst Part. — Proportional Mixtures of Salts and Acids with 

Water. 



Mixtures. 


Fall of temperature. 


Degrees of 
cold produced 






Fahrenheit. 


Fahr. 


1. Nitrate of ammonia 
Water 


1} 


from + 50° to + 4° 


46° 


2. Muriate of ammonia 


5 ) 






Nitrate of potash 


5 


from + 50° to + 10° 


40 


Water 


16 J 






3. Muriate of ammonia 








Nitrate of potash 
Sulphate of soda 


from + 50° to + 4° 


46 


Water 






4. Sulphate of soda 
Dilute nitric acid 


i\ 


from + 50° to — 3° 


53 


5. Nitrate of ammonia 


ii 






Carbonate of soda 


i 


from + 50° to — 7° 


57 


Water 


ij 






6. Phosphate of soda 
Dilute nitric acid 


i\ 


from + 50° to — 12° 


62 


7. Sulphate of soda 
Hydrochloric acid 


w 


from + 50° to 0° 


50 


8. Sulphate of soda 
Dilute sulphuric acic 


i\ 


from + 50° to + 3° 


47 


9. Sulphate of soda 


6 1 
4 

2 | 






Muriate of ammonia 
Nitrate of potash 


from + 50° to — 10° 


60 


Dilute nitric acid 


4J 






10. Sulphate of soda 


6 ) 






Nitrate of ammonia 


5 


from + 50° to — 14° 


64 


Dilute nitric acid 


4 J 


- 




11. Phosphate of soda 


9 ) 






Nitrate of ammonia 


6 


from + 50 to — 21° 


71 


Dilute nitric acid 


4j 







STEAM, LIGHT, HEAT, ETC. 



195 



Second Part. — Proportional Mixtures of Salts and Acids with Snow 

or Ice. 



Mixtures. 


Fall of temperature. 


Degrees of 
cold produced 








Fahrenheit. 


Fahr. 


12. 


Muriate of soda (com- 


} 








mon salt) 


1 


from any temp, to — 5° 


— 




Snow or pounded ice 


2) 






13. 


Muriate of soda 


2 ) 








Muriate of ammonia 


1 


do. do. to — 12° 


— 




Snow or pounded ice 


5) 






14. 


Muriate of soda 


5 1 

5 I 








Muriate of ammonia 


do. do. to — 18° 






Nitrate of potash 






Snow or pounded ice 


24 J 






15. 


Muriate of soda 


5 ) 








Nitrate of ammonia 


5 


do. do. to — 25° 


— 




Snow or pounded ice 


12) 






16. 


Dilute sulphuric acid 
Snow 


11 


from + 32° to — 23° 


55° 


17. 


Muriatic acid 
Snow 


1} 


from + 32° to — 27° 


59 


18. 


Dilute nitric acid 
Snow 


t\ 


from + 32° to — 30° 


62 


19. 


Muriate of lime 
Snow 


1} 


from + 32° to — 40° 


72 


20. 


Crystallized muriate 


1 








of lime 


8 


from + 32° to — 50° 


82 




Snow 


2) 






21. 


Potash 
Snow 


1} 


from + 32° to — 51° 


83 



Third Part. — Mixtures partly selected from the foregoing series, and 
combined so as to increase or extend the cold to the greatest 
extremes. 



Mixtures. 


Fall of temperature. 


Degrees of 
cold produced 






Fahrenheit. 


Fahr. 


22. 


Sea salt 5 ] 
Muriate of ammonia ) 5 ! 
Nitrate of potash J [ 








from — 5° to — 18° 


13° 




Snow or pounded ice 1 J 






23. 


Sea salt 5 \ 








Nitrate of ammonia 5 t 


from — 18° to — 25° 


7 




Snow or pounded ice 12 J 






24 


Phosphate of soda 5 S 








Nitrate of ammonia 3 > 


from 0° to — 34° 


34 




Dilute nitric acid 4J 







196 



MANAGEMENT OF SAWS 



Third Part. — Mixtures partly selected from the foregoing series, and 
combined so as to increase or extend the cold to the greatest 
extremes. 



Mixtures. 


Fall of temperature. 


Degrees of 
cold produced 








Fahrenheit. 


Fahr. 


25. 


Phosphate of soda 


3 ) 








Nitrate of ammonia 


2 


from — 34° to — 50° 


16° 




Dilute mixed acids 


4 J 






26. 


Snow 

Dilute nitric acid 


3 J 

2j 


from 0° to — 46° 


46 


27. 


Snow 


8 ) 








Dilute sulphuric acid 


3 


from — 10° to — 56° 


46 




Dilute nitric acid 


3) 






28. 


Snow 


l\ 








Dilute sulphuric acid 


from — 10° to — 60° 


50 


29. 


Snow 

Muriate of lime 


l\ 


from + 20° to — 48° 


68 


30. 


Snow 

Muriate of lime 


l\ 


from + 10° to — 54° 


64 


31. 


Snow 

Muriate of lime 


l\ 


from — 15° to — 68° 


53 


32. 


Snow 


I) 








Crystallized muriate 




from 0° to — 66° 


66 




of lime 


2) 






33. 


Snow 


n 








Crystallized muriate 




from — 40° to — 73° 


33 




of lime 


3j 






34. 


Snow 8 | 
Dilute sulphuric acid 10 J 


from — 68° to — 91° 


23 



Management of Saws. 

There is no tool in use that is more in demand than the saw, and 
there is no other implement more misused. The success of the saw- 
mill depends upon the saw ; therefore it is essential that none but com- 
petent men should manage it. No saw should be dressed otherwise 
than right, that is, both sides alike, and made accurately round and in 
balance. 

The shape of the teeth is of the utmost importance to the successful 
running of the saw, and yet but little attention is paid to this matter 
by the majority of filers. There are many different shapes used by 
filers in putting a saw in order, and, of course, all cannot be right. 

It is well known among first-class mechanics that when a cutting 
tool is brought in contact with a surface that is to be removed at a cer- 
tain angle, the chip is removed with less power than would otherwise 
be required ; consequently this angle is the right one to have, and the 
next thing to learn is how to get this desired angle for the teeth. The 
following rule will serve this purpose. 

To lay out the shape of the tooth, measure the distance from the eye 
of the saw to the point of the teeth ; now measure three-fifths of the 
distance from the eye of the saw, and strike a circle at that distance on 



WRINKLES FOR ENGINEERS. 197 

the saw ; then strike a straight line from this circle to the point of the 
teeth, which will give you the angle of the teeth, which is the main 
point to keep iu mind in shaping them. To get the proper shape of 
the back of the tooth, place your dividers with one point on the point 
of the tooth and the other on the circle in front of the centre, with 
your compasses set to strike a circle the size of the saw. This will pro- 
duce a thin cutting edge like a chisel or plane bit, and make the high- 
est running saws when the right depth of teeth and proper amount of 
throat are given. The depth of the teeth should be half the distance 
from point to point of the teeth, except when they are more than 3 
inches apart, in which case a depth of 1£ inches is enough. 

When the teeth are too long they will spring and tremble more, and 
the saw will stand less feed and dodge oftener. In fitting the points of 
the teeth both full swag and spring set are used, but swag is preferable, 
especially when there is plenty of power and the teeth are swaged 
properly. They are then not so liable to dodge and make snaky 
lumber. But any saw that has not been properly hammered and given 
the right tension will buckle and dodge, however well it is dressed. 
The time has come when it is essential for a filer to thoroughly under- 
stand the hammering of saws, as that constitutes one of the most im- 
portant parts of the business, and, indeed, if he lacks this knowledge 
he cannot be regarded as a first-class filer. 

As to the proper speed of a saw, 700 revolutions per minute will give 
the best results, yet many saws run much slower, and a great many 
somewhat faster. 

The feed which a saw should have depends upon the amount of 
power to drive it. The feed should be regulated so as to give the saw 
proper speed. If the speed is too slow, the feed should be decreased 
until the right speed is attained, and if too fast, or if there is a surplus 
of steam, more feed should be given. 

As to the size of saws there is but little difference in the power required 
to drive them. A 60-inch saw is perhaps to be preferred, but saws from 
48 to 72 inches are used with success. The gage should be from six to 
ten, but a thin saw is preferable, as it will run lighter. It is, however, 
more difficult to keep a thin saw in order, and eight or nine gage is 
preferable for general work. 

WRINKLES FOR ENGINEERS. 
STEAM. 

Pressure of steam is termed its tension or elastic force, and is ex- 
pressed in pounds per square inch. 

Temperature of steam is the number of degrees of heat indicated by 
a thermometer immersed in it. 

Density of steam is the weight of a unit of its volume compared 
with that of water. 

Relative volume, the space occupied by a given weight of volume of 
steam, compared with the weight or volume of the water that pro- 
duced it. 

Steam in contact with water is at its maximum density. 

Under the pressure of the atmosphere alone the temperature of 
water cannot be raised above its boiling point. 

Upon every square inch of the earth's surface there rests Hxij lbs., 
in round numbers 15 lbs. of air. 

If exposed to the open air at the level of the sea the boiling point 



198 



WRINKLES FOR ENGINEERS. 



of ordinary fresh water is 212° F., and at this temperature it is rapidly 
converted into vapor or steam which has an elastic force equal to that 
of the atmosphere. 

Steam is not half as heavy as air: the specific gravity of air being 
1.0000, and that of steam but 0.4883. 

13.817 cubic feet of air weigh 1 pound. 

26.36 cubic feet of steam, at atmospheric pressure, weigh 1 pound. 
Haswell gives 27.222 cubic feet ; others a little more. 

About 65 cubic feet of air furnish 1 pound of oxygen. 

An apartment 8 feet high, 12 feet wide and 13 feet long contains 
about 100 lbs. of air; and a room 40 feet square and 18 feet high con- 
tains about a ton. 

Steam, of atmospheric pressure, will flow into a vacuum at the speed 
of about 1550 feet in a second of time. 

The temperature of steam, as indicated by the thermometer, does not 
show the whole amount of heat contained in it. The heat indicated 
by a thermometer is called sensible heat; while the heat which cannot 
be detected by the thermometer is called latent heat. 

If boiling water has absorbed 212° of heat to bring it into that condition, 
it will require an addition of 966° to make it into steam of atmospheric 
pressure. These 966 degrees of heat which were added have become 
latent. The steam weighs just the same as the water from which it 
was formed — 1 cubic foot of water having made 1669 cubic feet of 
steam, commonly computed at 1700 cubic feet of steam. 

A cubic inch of water, evaporated under the ordinary atmospheric 
pressure (15 lbs. on the square inch), is converted into 1700 cubic 
inches of steam, or, in a unit of very nearly 1 cubic foot, and it exerts 
a mechanical force equal to the raising of 2120.14 pounds 1 foot high. 





Sensible Heat of Steam. 




Pounds. 
Pressure. 


Temperature. 


Pounds. 
Pressure. 


Temperature. 



5 

10 
20 
30 
40 


212 degrees. 

228 " 
240.1 " 

259.3 " 

274.4 " 
287.1 " 


50 

60 
70 
80 
90 
100 


298 degrees. 
307.5 

316.1 " 
324.1 " 
331.3 " 
338 " 



By the term saturated steam is meant not as some think wet steam, 
but simply dry steam as it is formed in contact with water. 

Flow of Steam through pipes and from a given orifice. — The approxi- 
mate weight of any fluid which will flow in one minute through any 
given pipe with a given head or pressure may be found by the follow- 
ing formula: 

W- 



300 /R. 



(P, -P 2 )d* 



L(l + d) ' 

in which TT= weight in lbs. avoirdupois, d = diameter in inches, D — 
density or weight per cubic foot ; p, the initial pressure, p 2 pressure at 
end of pipe, and L = length in feet. 

The following table gives, approximately, the weight of steam per 
minute which will flow from various initial pressures, with one pound 



WRINKLES FOR ENGINEERS. 



199 



loss of pressure through straight, smooth pipes, each having a length 
of 240 times its own diameter : 

Table of Flow of Steam Through Pipes. 



Si— 1 . 


Diameter of Pipe in inches. 


Length of each = 240 






diameters. 






S 


1 


U 


2 


2i 


3 


4 


T3 =3 u 
































"-5 P< 














'M£ 


Weigl 


it of steam per 


minutt 


s in pounds, with one 








pound loss of pressure. 




i 


1.16 


2.07 


5.7 


10.27 


15.45 


25.38 


46.85 


10 


1.44 


2.57 


7.1 


12.72 


19.15 


31.45 


58.05 


20 


1.70 


3.02 


8.3 


14.94 


22.49 


36.94 


68.20 


30 


1.91 


3.40 


9.4 


16.84 


25.35 


41.63 


76.84 


40 


2.10 


3.74 


10.3 


18.51 


27.87 


45.77 


84.49 


50 


2.27 


4.04 


11.2 


20.01 


30.13 


49.48 


91.34 


60 


2.43 


4.32 


11.9 


21.38 


32.19 


52.87 


97.60 


70 


2.57 


4.58 


12.6 


22.65 


34.10 


56.00 


103.37 


80 


2.71 


4.82 


13.3 


23.82 


35.87 


58.91 


108.74 


90 


2.83 


5.04 


13.9 


24.92 


37.52 


61.62 


113.74 


100 


2.95 


5.25 


14.5 


25.96 


39.07 


64.18 


118.47 


120 


3.16 


5.63 


15.5 


27.85 


41.93 


68.87 


127.12 


150 


3.45 


6.14 


17.0 


30.37 


45.72 


75.09 


138.61 



0> m 

Is"" d 


Diameter of Pipe in inches. Length of each = 240 
diameters. 


al pres 
gauge, 
er sq. i 


5 


6 


8 


10 


12 


15 


18 


3£ 


Weig 


it of st 


sam pei 
pound '. 


• minut 
oss of p 


3 in poi 
ressure. 


mds, wj 


th one 



1 

10 
20 
30 

40 

50 
60 
70 
80 
90 

100 

120 
150 



. 77.3 


115.9 


211.4 


341.0 


502.4 


804 


95.8 


143.6 


262.0 


422.8 


622.5 


996 


112.6 


168.7 


307.5 


496.5 


731.3 


1170 


126.9 


190.1 


346.8 


559.8 


824.1 


1318 


139.5 


209.0 


381.3 


615.3 


906.0 


1450 


150.8 


226.0 


412.2 


665.0 


979.5 


1567 


161.1 


241.5 


440.5 


710.6 


1046.7 


1675 


170.7 


255.8 


466.5 


752.7 


1108.5 


1774 


179.5 


269.0 


490.7 


791.7 


1166.1 


1866 


187.8 


281.4 


513.3 


828.1 


1219.8 


1951 


195.6 


293.1 


534.6 


862.6 


1270.1 


2032 


209.9 


314.5 


573.7 


925.6 


1363.3 


2181 


228.8 


343.0 


625.5 


1009.2 


1486.5 


2378 



1177 
1458 
1713 
1930 
2122 

2294 
2451 
2596 
2731 

2856 

2973 
3195 
3481 



200 WRINKLES FOR ENGINEERS. 

For sizes of pipe below six-inch, the flow is calculated from the 
actual areas of " standard " pipe of such nominal diameters. 

For horse-power, multiply the figures in the table by 2. For any 
other loss of pressure, multiply by the square root of the given loss. 
For any other length of pipe, divide 240 by the given length expressed 
in diameters, and multiply the figures in the table by the square root 
of this quotient, which will give the flow for one pound loss of press- 
ure. Conversely, dividing the given length by 240 will give the loss 
of pressure for the flow given in the table. 

The loss of head due to getting up the velocity, to the friction of the 
steam entering the pipe, and passing elbows and valves, will reduce 
the flow given in the tables. The resistance at the opening, and that 
at a globe valve, are each about the same as that for a length of pipe 
equal to 114 diameters divided by a number represented by 1 + 
(3.6 -=- diameter). For the sizes of pipes given in the table, these 
corresponding lengths are : 

f 1 1|2 21 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 15 18 
20 25 34 41 47 52 60 66 71 79 84 88 92 95 

The resistance at an elbow is equal to § that of a globe valve. The 
equivalents for opening for elbows, and for valves, must be added in 
each instance to the actual length of pipe. Thus a four-inch pipe, 120 
diameters (40 feet) long, with a globe valve and three elbows, would 
be equivalent to 120 + 60 + (3 x 40) = 360 diameters long; and 360-=- 
240 = 1£. It would therefore have \\ pounds loss of pressure at the 
flow given in the table, or deliver (1 -f- % /li = . 816), 81.6 per cent, of the 
steam into the same (1 lb.) loss of pressure. 

Flow of Steam from a given orifice. — Steam of any pressure flowing 
through an opening into any other pressure, less than three-fifths of 
the initial, has practically a constant velocity, 888 feet per second, or a 
little over ten miles per minute; hence the amount discharged in 
pounds is proportionate to the weight or density of the steam. To 
ascertain the pounds, avoirdupois, discharged per minute, multiply the 
area of opening in inches, by 370 times the weight per cubic foot of 
the steam. 

Or the quantity discharged per minute may be approximately found 
by Rankine's formula. W=6 a p -=-7, in which W= weight in pounds, 
a = area, in square inches, and p = absolute pressure. The theoretical 
flow requires to be multiplied by £ = 0.93, for a short pipe, 0.63 for a 
thin opening, as in a plate, or a safety valve. 

Where the steam flows into a pressure more than § the pressure in 
the boiler: 

W= 1.9aky/{p — 3)6; in which d = difference in pressure between 
the two sides, in pounds per square inch, and a, p and k as above. 

To reduce to horse-power, multiply by 2. 

Where a given horse-power is required to flow through a given open* 
ing, to determine the necessary difference in pressure. 



p __ / p 1 H 
2 V 4—14 



J7.P.2 



d l k 



Air as a Standard. 
The mean pressure of the atmosphere at the level of the sea is equal 



WRINKLES FOR ENGINEERS. 201 

to 14.7 lbs. per square inch, or 2116.4 lbs. per square foot. This is 
called one atmosphere of pressure. The following are measures of 
pressures : 

One atmosphere of pressure : — 1. A column of air at 32° F., 27.801 
feet or about 51 miles high, of uniform density equal to that of air at the 
level of the sea. 2. A column of mercury at 32° F., 29.922 inches or 
76 centimetres high ; nearly 30 inches. At 62° F. the height is 30 
inches. 3. A column of water at 62° F. 33.947 feet high ; nearly 34 
feet. 

A pressure of 1 lb. per square inch : — 1. A column of air at 32° F., 
1891 feet high, of uniform density as above. 2. A column of mercury 
at 32° F., 2.035 inches high. At 62° F. the height is 2.04 inches. 3. 
A column of water at 62° F., 2.31 feet or 27.72 inches high. 

A pressure of 1 lb. per square foot: — 1. A column of air at 32° F M 
13.13 feet high, of uniform density as above: — 2. A column of mercury 
at 32° F., 0.0141 inch high. At 62° F. the height is 0.01417. 3. A 
column of water at 62° F., 0.1925 inch high. 

The density or weight of one cubic foot of pure air, under a pressure 
of one atmosphere, or 14.7 lbs. per square inch, is, 

at 32° F. = 0.080728 lb. or 1.29 ounce or 565.1 grains 
at 62° F. = 0.076097 " " 1.217 " " 532.7 " 

The weight of a litre of pure air, under one atmosphere, at 32° F., is 
19.955 grains. 

The weight of air compared with that of water at three notable tem- 
peratures, and at 52.3° under one atmosphere, is as follows : 
Weight of water at 32° F. 773.2 times the weight of air at 32° F. 
tt u tt it on jo tt 773 27 " " " " " " " " 

tt it tt tt go° u 772 4 " " " " " " u " 

(i t( « « g2° " 819 4 u " " " " " 62° F 

a tt ft a rn go tt g20 « tt it tt it a it a 

The volume of 1 lb. of air at 32° F. and under one atmospheric press- 
ure is 12.387 cubic feet. The volume, at 62° F., is 13.141 cubic feet. 

The specific heat of air at constant pressure is 0.2377, and at constant 
volume, 0.1688, that of water being = 1. 

Water. 

A gallon of water (U. S. standard) weighs 8J pounds and contains 
231 cubic inches. 

A cubic foot of water weighs 62£ lbs. and contains 1.728 cubic 
inches, or 1\ gallons. 

Doubling the pipe increases its capacity four times. 

Friction of liquids in pipes increases as the square of the velocity. 

Each nominal horse-power of boilers requires 30 to 35 pounds of 
water per hour. 

To find the area of a piston, square the diameter and multiply by 
0.7854. 

To find the pressure in pounds per square inch of a column of water, 
multiply the height of the column in feet by 0.434. 

To find the capacity of a cylinder in gallons : multiply the area in 
inches by the length of stroke in inches which will give the total num- 
ber of cubic inches. Divide this amount by 231 (which is the cubical 
contents of a gallon in inches) and the product is the capacity in 
gallons. 

Ordinary speed to run pumps is 100 feet of piston per minute. 
15 



202 WRINKLES FOR ENGINEERS. 

To find the quantity of water elevated in one minute running at 100 
feet of piston per minute : square the diameter of water cylinder in 
inches and multiply by 4. Example: Capacity of a five-inch cylinder 
is desired. The square of the diameter (5 inches) is 25, which multi- 
plied by 4 gives 100, which is gallons per minute (approximately). 

To find the horse-power necessary to elevate water to a given height, 
multiply the total weight of column of water in pounds by the velocity 
per minute in feet and divide the product by 33,000 (an allowance of 
25 per cent, should be added for friction, etc.). 

Pressure of Water. — A pressure of 1 lb. per square inch is exerted by 
a column of water 2.3093 feet or 27.71 inches high, at 62° F., and a 
pressure of one atmosphere, or 14.7 lbs. per square inch, is exerted by a 
column of water 33.947 feet high at 62° F. 

A column of water at 62° F., one foot high, presses on the base with 
a force of 0.433 lbs., or 6.928 ounces per square inch. 

A column of 100 feet high presses with a force of 43J lbs. per square 
inch. 

A column of water one inch high presses on the base with a force of 
0.5773 ounce per square inch, or 5.196 lbs. per square foot. 

A column of water one mile deep, weighing 62.4 lbs. per cubic foot, 
presses on the base with a force of about one ton per square inch (fresh 
water exactly 48 lbs. more, sea water exactly 107.5 lbs. more.) 

Water is hardly compressible under pressure. Experiments appear 
to show that for each atmosphere of pressure it is condensed 47£ 
millionths of its bulk. 

Sea- Water. — One cubic foot of average sea-water at 62° F. weighs 64 
lbs., and the weight of fresh water is to that of sea-water as 39 to 40, or 
as 1 to 1.026. 

Thirty-five cubic feet of sea-water weigh one ton. 

One cubic yard of sea-water weighs 15i cwt. nearly (8 lbs. less). 

One cubic metre of sea-water weighs fully one ton (20 lbs. more). 

Average sea-water is composed as follows : 

Per 100 parts. Per 100 parts. 

Chloride of sodium (common salt) 2.50 

Sulphuret of magnesium 0.53 

Chloride of magnesium 0.33 

Carbonate of lime ) a> qq 

Carbonate of magnesia J 

Sulphate of lime 0.01 

Solid matter, say 3.40 

Water 96.60 

100.00 
showing that sea-water contains & part of its weight of solid matter in 
solution. 

According to Reclus, the mean specific gravitv of sea-water is 1.028. 
In the Mediterranean Sea it is 1.029; in the Black Sea, 1.016. The 
mean quantity of salts or solid matter, in solution, is 3.44 per cent., 
three-fourths of which is common salt. In the Red Sea the water con- 
tains 4.3 per cent. ; in the Baltic Sea, 5 per cent ; and at Cronstadt, 2 
per cent. 

Ice and Snow. 

One cubic foot of ice at 32° F. weighs 57.50 lbs. 



WRINKLES FOR ENGINEERS 



203 



One pound of ice at 32° F. has a volume of 0.174 cubic foot or 30.067 
cubic inches. 

The volume of water at 32° F. is to that of ice at 32° F. as 1.000 to 
1.0855 ; the expansion in passing into the solid state being above 8£ per 
cent, of the volume of water. 

The specific density of ice is 0.922, that of water at 62° F. being = 1. 

The melting point of ice is 32° F. or 0° C, under the ordinary atmos- 
pheric pressure of 14.7 lbs. per square inch. Under greater pressure 
the melting point is lower, being at the rate of 0.133° F. for each addi- 
tional atmosphere of pressure. 

The specific heat of ice is 0.504, that of water being — 1. 

One cubic foot of fresh snow weighs 5.20 lbs. Snow has 12 times the 
bulk of water, and its specific gravity is 0.833. 

To Cool a Hot Journal. — Quite an ingenious way of cooling a 
journal that cannot be stopped is to hang a short, endless belt on the 
shaft next to the box, and let the lower part of it run in cold water. 
The turning of the shaft carries the belt slowly around, bringing fresh 
cold water continually in contact with the heated shaft, and without 
spilling or spattering a drop of water. 

Gross Power from Piston Areas. — Look in the following table, 
in the square corresponding to the mean effective pressure and piston 
speed of your engine, and you have a number which, multiplied by 
the piston area, gives the gross horse-power : 

Multipliers for Various Speeds and Pressures* 



s . 

55 05 55 


Lineal piston speeds in feet per minute. 


?£8 


300 


350 


400 


450 


500 


550 


600 


S a- a. 


.0090900 


.01000606 


.0121212 


.01363036 


.015515 


.0166667 


.0181818 


10 


.090909 


.106061 


.121212 


.136364 


.151515 


.166667 


.181S18 


15 


.136364 


.159090 


.181818 


.204545 


.241818 


.255814 


.272727 


20 


.181818 


.212111 


.242424 


.272727 


,303030 


.333333 


.363636 


25 


.227273 


.265165 


.303030 


.340909 


.378788 


.416666 


.454545 


30 


.272727 


.318181 


.363636 


.409090 


.454545 


.500000 


.545554 


35 


.318182 


.371212 


.424242 


.477272 


.530303 


.583333 


.636364 


40 


.363636 


.424242 


.484848 


.545454 


.606061 


.666666 


.727273 


45 


.409091 


.477272 


.545455 


.613636 


.701819 


.750000 


.828283 


50 


.454545 


.530303 


.606061 


.681818 


.757576 


.833333 


.909091 


55 


.500000 


.583333 


.666667 


.750000 


.833333 


.916666 


1.000000 


60 


.545455 


.636363 


.727373 


.818181 


.909091 


1.000000 


1.090909 



* As the gross horse-power is equal to the product of the mean effective pressure, 
the piston area and piston speed divided by 33000, these multipliers are got by dividing 
33000 into the product of the mean effective pressure by the piston speed. 

To get a multiplier from any other mean effective pressure, multiply that mean 
effective pressure by the small figures in the column headings. 

To get multipliers for any other lineal piston speed, multiply the mean effective 
pressure in the table by the small figures under them. 

Pump Capacity, how to calculate. — Multiply the volume dis- 
placed by the water piston at each stroke in cubic inches by the number 
of strokes per hour. This will give the volume per hour which can be 
reduced to gallons by dividing by 231. The amount actually pumped 
may fall off from this on account of the pump failing to fill, or may 
slightly exceed it on account of momentum given to the column. 



204 



WRINKLES FOR ENGINEERS, 



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WRINKLES FOR ENGINEERS. 



205 



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W 



206 WRINKLES FOR ENGINEERS. 

Cleansing" Surface Condensers. —On the steam side the greasy 
deposit is best removed by filling with a solution of caustic soda and 
boil by letting steam in. The scale deposit on the water side is best 
removed by scraping. When the tubes are removable they can be 
soaked in kerosene, which both removes the oily deposit and softens 
the scale. 

Management of Steam Boilers. — In Grimshaw's "Miller, Mill- 
wright and Mill-Furnisher," the following capital set of rules is 
given : 1. Condition of the water. — The first duty of an engineer, when 
he enters his boder-room in the morning, is to ascertain how many 
gages of water there are in his boiler. Never uiibank or replenish 
the fire until this is done. Accidents have occurred, and many boilers 
have been entirely ruined from neglect of this precaution. 2. Low 
water. — In case of low water, immediately cover the fire with ashes, or 
if no ashes are on hand, use fresh coal. Do not turn on the feed under 
any circumstances, nor tamper with nor open the safety valve. Let 
the steam outlets remain as they are. 3. /// case of foaming, close the 
throttle, and keep closed long enough to show the true level of water. 
If that level is sufficiently high, feeding and blowing will usually 
suffice to correct the evil. In case of violent foaming caused by dirty 
water, or change of fresh to salt, or vice versa, in addition to the action 
above stated, check the draft and cover the fire with fresh coal. 4. 
Leaks. — When leaks are discovered they should be repaired as soon as 
possible. 5. Bloxving-off. — Blow down under a pressure not exceeding 
20 lbs., at least once in two weeks; every Saturday night would be 
better. In case the feed becomes muddy, blow out six or eight inches 
every day. Where surface blow-cocks are used, they should be often 
opened for a few moments at a time. 6. Filling up the boiler. — After 
blowing down, allow the boiler to cool before filling up again. Cold 
water pumped into hot boilers is very injurious from sudden contrac- 
tion. 7. Exterior of boiler. — Care should be taken that no water 
conies in contact with the exterior of the boiler, either from leaky 
joints or from other causes. 8. Removing deposit and sediment. — In 
tubular boilers the hand-holes should often be opened, and all collec- 
tions removed from over the fire. Also, when boilers are fed in front 
and blown off through the same pipe, the collection of mud or sediment 
in the rear end should often be removed. 9. Safety valve. — Raise ttie 
safety valves cautiously and frequently, as they are liable to become 
fast in their seats and useless for their intended purpose. 10. Safety 
valve and pressure gage. — Should the gage at any time indicate the 
limit of pressure, see that the safety valves are blowing off. 11. Gage 
cocks and glass gages. — Keep the gage cocks clear and in constant 
use. Glass gages should not be relied on altogether. 12. Blisters. — 
When a blister appears there must be no delay in having it carefully 
examined and trimmed or patched, as the case may require. 13. Clean 
sheets. — Particular care should be taken to keep the sheets and parts 
of the boiler exposed to the fire perfectly clean ; also all tubes, flues and 
connections well swept. This is particularly necessary where wood 
or soft coal is used as fuel. 14. General care of boilers and connec- 
tions. — Under all circumstances keep the gage cocks, etc., clean and 
in good order, and things generally in and about the engine and boiler- 
room in a neat condition. He closes with the following Pertinent 
Questions: How long since you were inside of your boiler? Were 
any of the braces slack? Were any of the pins out of the braces? 



WRINKLES FOR ENGINEERS. 207 

Did all the braces ring alike? Did not some of them sound like a 
fiddle-string? Did you notice any scale on flues or crown-sheet? If 
you did when do you intend to remove it? Have you noticed any 
evidence of bulging in the fire-box-plates ? Do you know of any leaky 
socket bolts? Are any of the flange joints leaking? Will your safety- 
valve blow oif of itself, or does it stick a little sometimes? Are there 
any globe valves between the safety-valve and the boiler? They 
should be taken out at once if there are. Are there any defective 
plates about your boiler? Is the boiler so set that you can inspect 
every part of it when necessary? If not, how can you tell in what 
condition the plates are? Are not some of the lower courses of tubes 
or flues in your boiler choked with soot or ashes? Do you absolutely 
know of your own knowledge that your boiler is in safe and econom- 
ical working order? or do you merely suppose it is? These are ques- 
tions of great importance. With a steam boiler, it is most emphatically 
true, that the price of safety is eternal vigilance. He who assumes its 
charge, takes on himself a grave responsibility, and the slightest lapse 
into carelessness on his part may result in disaster to life and 
property. 

How Boiler Plates are Proved. — This is done by placing a 
piece of Bessemer steel 10 inches long in the testing machine. 
Gradually the surface scales off" in the middle to become smaller in 
area and somewhat elongated, till at last it breaks with a sharp snap 
at a breaking strain of about 28 tons to the square inch, the reduction 
of area being 51 per cent, and the elongation 23 per cent. 

Zinc in Boilers. — The action of zinc upon lime scale is said to be 
to keep it pulverulent and prevent it from forming into a hard, com- 
pact mass. Zinc is used, however, more for the prevention of corro- 
sion than of scaling. When two metals are used in contact, a galvanic 
couple is established and the metal which is electro-positive is rapidly 
corroded. This action takes place where brass or copper tubes and 
fittings are used in connection with iron and frequently results from 
the use of different kinds of iron in the same boiler. To prevent it 
zinc is placed in the boiler in contact with the plates, and, being 
electro-positive, is corroded instead of the iron and may be renewed as 
required. 

Rule for Finding the Pressure it Takes to Lift Simply the 
Lever and Valve of an Ordinary Safety Valve. — First find on 
the lever the position of its centre of gravity. This you may do by 
balancing the lever on a knife's edge. The vertical line drawn on the 
lever from the knife's edge will pass through the centre of gravity. 
Measure the distance from this line on the lever to the centre of the 
fulcrum ; multiply this distance in inches by the weight in pounds of 
the lever and divide the product by the distance in inches from the 
centre of the valve to the centre of the fulcrum ; the quotient will be 
the total pressure required to lift the valve and lever. To find the 
pressure per square inch on the valve divide the pressure just found 
by the area in square inches of the valve; the quotient will be the 
pressure per square inch. 

Engine-room Repairs.— The following hints are given by W. E. 
Crane in " Power-Steam : " It not infrequently happens that some fits be- 
come loose, like a piston-rod in the cross-head, as shown in Fig. 59. In 
this case the key draws the rod in up to the shoulder, as the Key binds 



208 



WRINKLES FOR ENGINEERS. 



in the key- way of the cross-head, and still the rod is loose and causes 
a disagreeable knocking, besides being liable to cause trouble. 

%• 59- 





: [jOi: 





To remedy this take a piece of writing paper and wrap one thickness 
around the end of the rod that goes into the cross-head ; put the rod 
in and draw it up with the key. Unless it is an uncommonly loose lit 
it will be found to be all right. 

Where a piston is found to be loose on a rod and the same is drawn 
on with a key or a nut, the same remedy will apply and save the ex- 
pense of a new rod in both cases. 

Good tough paper is better in these cases than brass, as it is much 
easier fitted and packs solid, while brass under a given pressure draws. 
The paper should be thoroughly dry, and where it is put in so solid 
moisture cannot reach it. Inside the cylinder, however, the heat will 
gradually burn it, and in such a position it might have to be replaced. 

Paper will do the work where packing is required that is drawn up 
tight so that no friction comes on it. It also comes handy in setting 
machinery on foundations where packing up is required. 

There are cases where holes have to be filled, like a sand or blow- 
hole in castings. Sometimes these break out after a machine has been 
running. 

A cheap and effective way of filling these is to dig them out the 
longest at the bottom, as a dentist digs out the cavity of a tooth for 
filling; build a little pocket of putty around it with a suitable support 
and fill it with babbitt metal ; then trim it down level. 

A manner of filling a hole with iron is shown in Fig. 60. A piece 

Fig. 6o. 




can be dove-tailed in on this plan in a hole that is in such a position 
that the piece inserted cannot be slipped in " endways," but must be 



WRINKLES FOR ENGINEERS. 



209 



dropped in from the top. The cut simply shows a block A, with 
the dove-tail piece B and the key C. 

If a hole be cut out of a plain surface on the lines D, E, F, C, and 
the piece B be made narrow enough to fall between the lines E, F, and 
then the key C driven, it is all dove-tailed in solid shape and cannot 
get out unless the key C gets loose. 

This is a nice job to do, but if well done and the key made a driving 
fit it will stay. To make it surer it might be well to secure the key C 
with one or more screws or with pins. 

Butt-Splicing of Vulcanized Rubber Belting-.— Fig. 61 illus- 
trates the manner of butt-splicing vulcanized rubber belting. The 




Fig. 62. 




belt to be adjusted to the pulley (depending upon the thickness of the 
belt) should be cut shorter than the distance around the pulleys by J 
to \ of an inch for every foot when measured with a tape or string 
drawn tight. For narrow belts make two rows of holes in each end, 
thus obtaining a double hold ; butt the ends together and lace with 
lacing leather. For wide heavy belts a rivetted lap-splice, fully illus- 
trated in Figs. 62 and 63, is recommended. 

Fig. 63. 




Fig. 64. 




In Fig. 64 is shown a back splice intended for wide belts where the 
rivetted lap-splice is not used. To make this splice butt the ends and, 
in addition, sew or rivet a piece of rubber belting on the back to 



210 THE STEAM-ENGINE INDICATOR. 

strengthen the joint, equal in length to about one-half the width of the 
belt. 

THE STEAM-ENGINE INDICATOR.* 

The function of the indicator is to automatically trace out on a paper 
a diagram that will graphically represent the pressure of the steam in 
the cylinder of the engine to which it is attached, with all its varia- 
tions during both forward and return strokes of the piston. It enables 
those who use or have charge of steam-engines to ascertain the condi- 
tion of the parts of the engine subject to the direct action of the steam 
and to what advantage the steam is applied; whether the valves are 
properly designed and accurately set, and if the steam passages or ports 
are of the proper size to receive and discharge the steam in time to pro- 
duce the best etfect; what pressure of steam there is upon the piston at 
every position in the cylinder, as well as its average during the stroke; 
what is the value of the vacuum acting upon the piston of a condens- 
ing engine in all its positions in the cylinder, and what is its average ; 
whether the exhaust passages from the cylinder are sufficiently large to 
give free exit to the steam, and if not, what percentage of power is lost 
in forcibly expelling it; the actual consumption of steam in giving 
motion to the shafting and mill- work, the paddle-wheel, or screw pro- 
peller; and also what power is required to move the machinery or any 
part of it. 

In manufacturing establishments where power is let, it will show how 
much each tenant consumes; and in large establishments, where fric- 
tion of shafting and machinery forms a large proportion of the resist- 
ance offered, it guides in the selection of proper lubricants. 

Indicator cards are of great value as they demonstrate the initial, 
mean effective, and terminal pressures, the back pressure, the cushion, 
whether by compression or lead ; the point of cut-off, and the relative 
economy of different engines aside from leakage and condensation. It 
may be applied not only to steam-engines but those driven by com- 
pressed air, or any vapor or fluid, as well as to cylinders of air-pumps, 
air-compressors, blast-engines, etc. The diagram produced is the joint 
production of two movements, viz., a vertical movement of the mark- 
ing point due to the pressure of the steam acting on the piston of the 
instrument, in opposition to the force of a spring of known strength, 
and a horizontal movement of the paper, as the drum on which it is 
placed makes partial rotations to and fro coincident with the move- 
ment of the piston. Hence, when the pencil is held in contact with 
the paper during one revolution of the engine, both will arrive at the 
point from which they started at the same moment, and a closed 
figure will be the result, except when a great change in the load and 
pressure occurs during the stroke in which the diagram was taken. 

The value of indicator cards is that they show what proportion of 
the boiler pressure is contained in the cylinder; how early in the 
stroke the highest pressure is reached; how well it is maintained ; at 
what point and at what pressure the steam is cut off; whether it is cut 
off sharply, or in what degree it is wire-drawn ; at what point, and at 
what pressure it is released ; whether it is freely discharged, or what 
proportion of it (in excess of the atmosphere or vacuum in the con- 
denser, according as the engine is condensing or non-condensing) 

*From " Engineer's Handy-Book" by Stephen Roper ; and "Practical Steam-Engi- 
neer's Guide" by Emory Edwards. 



THE STEAM-ENGINE INDICATOR. 211 

remains to exert a counter or back pressure ; whether before the com- 
mencement of the stroke there is any compression of the vapor remain- 
ing in the cylinder, and if so, at what point in the stroke it commences, 
and to how high a pressure it rises. The foregoing particulars can 
only be learned by observation, though a scale corresponding with the 
spring used is needed to measure the pressures, and to locate the exact 
events in the stroke. The points to be observed in estimating diagrams 
are, the mean or average pressure; the total mean, or the mean effec- 
tive pressure; the indicated horse-power, I. H. P., and the theoretical 
water consumption. The indicator shows the pressure at each and 
every point in the stroke; to represent this faithfully is its sole office. 
The causes which determine the form of the figure must be deter- 
mined by the engineer. 

Technical Terms used in connection •with the employment 
of the Indicator. 

Adiabatic literally means no transmission. As applied to an expan- 
sion curve, it means that it correctly represents at all points the press- 
ure due both to the volume and the temperature, just as if no trans- 
mission of heat to or from it had taken place. 

Admission. This term is applied to the induction of the steam into 
the cylinder when the valve opens at the commencement of the stroke. 

The term Asymptote means a line which approaches nearer and 
nearer to some curve, but which, though infinitely extended, would 
never meet it. The clearance and vacuum lines of a diagram are 
asymptotes of a true expansion curve. 

The letter B at the end of a diagram means that that end was taken 
from the bottom end of the cylinder. 

A B or A b a is understood to stand for above atmosphere, and B A 
or B I a, below atmosphere. 

Compression is a term used to express the distance through which 
the piston moves in the cylinder after the exhaust has closed. Com- 
pression takes place between the piston and cylinder-head at the end 
of each stroke ; and the distance from the end of the cylinder at which 
it takes place depends on the amount of lap on the valve. 

Cushion means the resistance offered on the opposite side of the piston 
induced by the steam shut up in the cylinder. 

Cylinder Efficiency. This term is used to designate the amount of 
work performed in the cylinder of a steam-engine for a given press- 
ure. 

Clearance expresses the extent of the space which exists between 
the piston, the cylinder-head and the valve-face at each end of the 
stroke. 

Displacement. This term is applied to the cubic contents, or the 
volume of water, steam, or air displaced by the piston during one 
stroke. It may be found by multiplying the area of the piston in inches 
by its stroke in inches. The product will be its displacement in cubic 
inches. 

Duty. This term is understood to mean the efficiency of steam- 
engines, or the number of pounds that an engine is capable of raising 
one foot high per second with an expenditure or consumption of one 
hundred pounds of coal. 

Flexure means bending or curving. The point of flexure in a 
diagram is the point at which the cut-off closes and the expansion 



212 THE STEAM-ENGINE INDICATOR. 

curve begins. The point of contrary flexure is the point at which the 
line changes its direction by curving outward and aiterwards inward. 

H. P. cyl. stands for high-pressure cylinder. 

H. P. means horse-power, which, when applied to the steam-engine, 
means 33,000 lbs. raised one foot high ; or 150 lbs. raised 220 feet high; 
or 550 lbs. raised one foot high in one second. 

The term Hyperbola means a plane figure which is formed by cutting 
a portion from a cone by a plane, parallel to its axis or to any plane 
within the cone, which passes through the cone's vertex. The cuive 
of the hyperbola is such that the difference between the distances of 
any point in it from two given points is always equal to a given right 
line. 

The term Isothermal means uniform or same temperature. As ap- 
plied to an expansion curve, it means that such a curve represents 
correctly the expansion or compression of the steam when the temper- 
ature is uniform. 

L. P. cyl. means low-pressure cylinder. 

The term Ordinates means the vertical lines drawn across diagrams 
to facilitate the calculation of their power. 

Parallelism. This term is generally employed where two or more 
straight lines might be extended indefinitely, without any tendency to 
approach or diverge from one another. 

Release. This term is understood to mean exhaust. Residuary ex- 
haust is that which follows the first release of the terminal pressure. 
The term negative exhaust is sometimes used, though not generally 
understood in its literal sense. It means compression or cushion, and 
absolutely amounts to the same thing, as it is merely an early product 
of the exhaust, for the purpose of retaining a portion of steam in the 
cylinder as the crank approaches the centre of the stroke. 

Rev. or Rev's is understood to mean revolutions per minute, though 
rspm is sometimes used. 

/. H. P. means indicated horse-power. It means the number of H. P. 
of energy shown by the diagram of an engine, as found by multiplying 
together the area of the piston in square inches, its speed in feet per 
minute, and the mean effective pressure shown, and dividing the 
product by 33,000. 

N. H. P. means net horse-power, which is the I. H. P. minus the fric- 
tion of the engine. 

The term Initial Pressure is generally understood to mean the press- 
ure represented in the cylinder between the opening of the steam- 
valve and the closing of the cut-off. More properly speaking, it is the 
pressure represented in the cylinder at the commencement of the 
stroke, as the pressure frequently falls considerably before the closing 
of the cut-off. 

M. E. P. means Mean Effective Pressure. It is simply the amount by 
which the average impelling pressure exceeds the average resisting or 
counter-pressure. The M, E. P. on the piston of a steam-engine is the 
measure or exponent of the work performed. 

The term Terminal Pressure means the pressure at which the steam 
is exhausted from the cylinder, and may be said to be the exponent of 
the consumption of water by the engine. 

The term Pipe Diagram is applied to diagrams taken from the steam- 
pipe for the purpose of determining how much of the pressure of the 
steam in the pipe is lost in passing through the steam-ports to the 
cylinder. 



THE STEAM-ENGINE INDICATOR, 



213 



The terra Scale means the number of pounds of steam per square 
inch (acting on the piston of an engine) represented by each incli of 
vertical height on the diagram. Thus a forty-pound scale means that 
each inch on the diagram represents forty pouuds of steam per square 
inch, and so on. 

The term Spring means the spring which is employed on the piston 
of the instrument in order to resist the pressure of the steam and the 
vacuum. The following table will give the limit of pressure in the 
cylinder to which each spring may be subjected. The length of each 
spring given in the third column is such that each of them would be 
extended (when subjected to a perfect vacuum) to a length of 2th inches, 
which is the approximate length which would carry the pencil to the 
lower limit of the range of movement above given. 





Limit of 








cylinder- 






Scale of spring. 


pressure 
above at- 
mosphere. 




Length of spring. 


15 pounds per inch. 


25 pounds. 


2.192 inches = nearlv 2\ inches. 


20 " " " 


38 " 


2.255 


" = a little above 2\ ins. 


30 " " " 


64 


2.315 


" = " " 2ft ins. 
or nearer 2tb ins. 


40 » « « 


90 


2.345 


" = nearly 2/u inches. 


60 " " " 


143 


2.376 


" = a little over 2| ins. 


80 " " " 


195 


2.391 


" = a little above 2§ ins. 



To find the corresponding limit for grades not given multiply the 
total range of movement, 2.625 inches, by the scale of the spring, and 
deduct the pressure of the atmosphere. 

Example : Suppose it is desired to find the limit of pressure for a 50- 
pound spring: 50 x 2.625 — 14.7 = 116.55. 

The term String means the aggregate length of the ordinates of an 
indicator diagram. 

The letter T on a diagram denotes that that end was taken from the 
top end of a cylinder. 

The term Undulating means rising and falling, wavy. 

Wire-drawing. This term is applied to the common method of 
regulating the flow of steam from the boiler to the cylinder, by 
throttling or forcing the steam to ooze through some small or intricate 
device, such as the governor-valve, thus tending to destroy its 
elastic force. 

Zero. This term, when applied to indicator diagrams, means a 
vacuum. 

The Crosby Indicator. — The principle and action of indicators 
are so simple that it will only be necessary to give the following cut 
and description of this instrument to readily appreciate the advantages 
accruing from its use. 

A is a case or jacket enclosing a cylinder, into which a piston is 



214 



THE STEAM-ENGINE INDICATOR 



nicely fitted to move without friction ; to the upper side of this piston 
is attached a steel helical spring, the upper end of which is fastened 
to the cap or head of the cylinder; to the upper end of the piston-rod 
B is directly jointed the short lever C D, whose short end is jointed to 
the head of a vibrating standard at D, and its long end is jointed to the 
long lever E F at the point C. The long arm of the lever E F is 

Fig. 65. 




THE CROSBY STEAM-ENGINE INDICATOR. 



jointed at its outer extremity to a second vibrating standard at E, and 
to the other extremity is attached the pencil F. To the case A is per- 
manently attached the horizontal plate G, at one end of which is jointed 
a corresponding plate H, situated above the former and carrying the 
revolving drum covered by the paper cylinder I. To this drum is at- 



THE STEAM-ENGINE INDICATOR. 215 

tached a cord, wound around a groove at its base and carried by the 
guide-wheel K, between the two extra guide wheels L and M, the 
guide-wheels L and M are attached to the arm N, which swivels 
around a point in line with the axis of guide-wheel K and is held in 
its proper position by the thumb-nut O. The drum carrying the paper 
cylinder I is rotated in one direction by the tension on the cord, and in 
the reverse direction by the reaction of a spring enclosed therein; the 
tension upon this spring may be adjusted to suit by the thumb-nut at 
the open end of the drum. The plate H carrying the drum and paper 
cylinder is held away from the pencil F by a spring situated between 
the plates H and G, directly in the line with the axis of the drum, 
until the operator desires to take a diagram. By pressing upon the 
handle P the paper cylinder is moved forward, and the pencil comes in 
contact with the paper. Immediately upon removing this pressure the 
paper cylinder automatically assumes its former position. Two ad- 
justable stops determine the amount of this motion and regulate the 
force with which the pencil presses upon the paper, a hair line being 
attainable without friction. The bushing which carries the pencil is 
bored to receive a graphite or metallic wire, and is supplied with means 
for holding it in any position required. The piston-rod is bored at 
each end almost half its length, leaving a thin partition or stop in the 
centre; the upper chamber is used as a reservoir for a lubricant and is 
provided with pin-holes close to the partition to allow the oil to flow 
out and down and so lubricate the rod and piston ; the lower chamber 
allows the steam to enter and warm the lubricant, causing it to assume 
a more limpid form and flow freely in cold weather. The piston-rod 
is thus made lighter without weakening it materially. A minute por- 
tion of felt placed at the bottom of the reservoir will prevent the oil 
from flowing too readily. It can be filled at the cross-head with a few 
drops of oil by using a common pressure oiler with a very small nozzle. 
To adjust the pencil to the proper position for springs of different 
scales the head of the piston-rod is provided with a screw-threaded 
sleeve and lock-nut, by means of which the pencil may be made to as- 
sume any desired height. If it is wished the guide-wheels, etc., may 
be removed to the opposite end of the plates H and G. The use of a 
revolving drum for transmitting motion to the paper having been 
demonstrated to be the best means for the purpose, it has been adopted, 
the only prerequisites being sufficient strength of spring and inelas- 
ticity of cord to overcome the momentum of the reciprocating parts. 
In any other devices, such as require a connecting-rod, there is im- 
parted* to the latter a tremulous and excessive motion, caused by its 
length and weight running at high speed when connected with a 
vibrating arm, which is transmitted to the lines of the diagram, thus 
producing error. 

Hoxo to Attach the Indicator. — The indicator should be connected as 
closely to the cylinder of the engine as possible, as pressure is lost by 
the use of pipes. The connection may be made by drilling the cylinder 
or its heads; but care should be used in drilling the cylinder that the 
piston does not cover the hole at the end of the stroke." By allowing a 
small quantity of steam to enter the cylinder as the drill begins to go 
through, all chips will be blown out. No lead or putty should be used 
in making the connections. Keep clear of the thoroughfares, as steam 
passing the hole for the connection reduces the pressure in the indica- 
tor ; screw the stop-cock to its place, then open it and blow steam 
through to clear the connections, and attach the indicator by means of 



216 THE STEAM-ENGINE INDICATOR. 

the union nut when in the best position to operate ; move the adjust- 
able guide-wheels to the best position for receiving the cord, and then 
connect the cord to the apparatus for transmitting the motion from the 
engine to the paper. The cord must be connected with some part of 
the engine having a movement coincident with the piston, and which 
would give the paper cylinder a movement of about three-fourths of a 
revolution ; it will frequently be found necessary to erect a temporary 
rocker-shaft, or lever connecting with the cross-head, for reducing the 
motion ; for a beam-engine, a point on the parallel bar, beam or beam- 
centre will answer. Beyond these suggestions, the ingenuity and 
judgment of the operator must determine what is required to produce 
the proper movement. Care should be taken that the cord should be 
so led off from the part which gives it motion that, when the engine is 
on half-stroke, it will be at right angles to such part; but between the 
first pulley and the indicator it may take any required direction. Use 
as few pulleys and as short a cord as possible. It is also necessary that 
the length of the cord be easily adjusted, and readily connected and 
disconnected. To meet these requirements, one end should be provided 
with a running loop and hook, as shown in Fig. 66. Arrange the 

Fie. 66. 




motion of the paper cylinder by means of the running loop, so that it 
shall not be checked at one end of the stroke by the stop-fixture, and 
thereby slacken the cord ; nor at the other end by the springs for hold- 
ing the paper on the cylinder coming in contact with the pencil, either 
of which would render the diagram useless. 

How to Take a Diagram. — Remove the paper cylinder from the 
drum and place the paper upon it; the easiest method of doing this is 
to secure the two lower corners of the paper between the thumb and 
finger, then put the loop so made over the top of the cylinder; slip the 
edges under the springs and slide the whole down to the bottom, leav- 
ing it smooth and tight. 

Return the cylinder to the drum ; adjust the cylinder to the pencil 
for a hair line; open the stop-cock and allow the steam to enter ; heat 
and expand the cylinder to give freedom of motion; then turn the T 
handle of the cock-plug to a horizontal position to allow of atmospheric 
pressure under the piston as well as above it ; connect the cord and 
draw the atmospheric line; then turn the T handle to a vertical posi- 
tion, and press the paper cylinder up to the pencil by means of the 
handle P long enough for the engine to make one revolution. No 
nicety is required in this, as the adjustable stop determines the distance 
moved and delicacy of the lines drawn. The engine should be allowed, 
a short time before taking diagrams, to clear the cylinder from water 
and thoroughly heat it. 

If it is a new indicator, allow its piston to work for a few moments 
before taking a diagram. After a diagram is taken, disconnect the 
cord by means of the hook and close the stop-cock, as continual work- 
ing only wears out the instrument needlessly. Remove the paper, and 



THE STEAM-ENGINE INDICATOR. 217 

make the proper memoranda upon the back at once ; this should at 
least include the following particulars, viz. : description of engine, 
scale or spring, diameter of cylinder and piston-rod, which end of 
cylinder, length of stroke, number of revolutions per minute, cubic 
contents of clearance and thoroughfares, pressure of steam in the boiler, 
and, if a condensing-engine, the vacuum indicated by the gauge. As 
many more particulars and circumstances should be added as can be 
readily ascertained, among which it is well to include the length of 
counecting-rod and the weight of all the reciprocating parts ; to avoid 
mistakes designate the two ends of the cylinder as out-end and crank-end. 

Diagrams.— It must always be remembered that the indicator's 
office is only to represent the" pressure ou the piston at each point of 
the stroke by lines circumscribed upon paper. The correct reading of 
these lines i's left entirely to the operator. For the mere purpose of 
ascertaining the condition of the valves, piston, etc., it will be quite 
sufficient to scan the outlines of the diagram ; but, if the power of the 
engine is required, the mean pressures upon the opposite sides of the 
piston must be ascertained by measurement. In using a graphite wire 
for marking the lines any paper susceptible of taking a fine impression 
from an ordinary lead-pencil will answer; but, if the metallic point is 
used, a paper expressly prepared for the purpose is necessary. Dia- 
grams should be taken from both ends of the cylinder, and simulta- 
neously, if practicable; and the mean result taken as a basis for esti- 
mating the power of the engine. 

The common idea that, if the valves are properly adjusted, two dia- 
grams thus taken must be alike is a mistake. They will, in some 
respects, be dissimilar from various causes, one of which is the difference 
in the speed of the piston at opposite ends of the stroke. There may 
be a difference also in the size of the thoroughfares. The extreme ends 
of the diagrams are produced at the exact time the engine is passing 
its centres. In diagrams of non-condensing engines the lower line is 
usually drawn slightly above the atmospheric pressure. 

To Compute the Average Pressures. — Divide the diagram into 
a number of equal spaces by lines drawn at right angles to the atmos- 
pheric line; ten is usually sufficient, but twenty is better if great 
accuracy is required. A proportional divider, with a small try-square, 
answers every purpose. 

In non-condensing engines, when calculating the average pressure on 
the steam side of the piston for the whole stroke, the mean pressure in 
each division or space enclosed by these lines, between the upper line 
(steam and expansion) and the atmospheric line, should be first ascer- 
tained. This may be done either by carefully measuring each space 
between the atmospheric line and the upper line of diagram by the 
scale corresponding to the spring used in the instrument, and the sum 
of these measurements divided by the number of spaces give the aver- 
age pressure per square inch upon the working side of the piston, or 
average impelling pressure for the whole stroke ; or, upon measuring 
the spaces with a common rule, divide their sum by the number of 
spaces and multiply the quotient by the number of the spring, and the 
result is the same. Proceed in like manner to find the average resist- 
ing pressure upon the opposite side of the piston, measuring the dis- 
tance in each space between the lower line (counter-pressure and com- 
pression) and the atmospheric line ; the difference between the average 
impelling pressure and the average resisting pressure gives the mean 
16 



218 LUBRICATING OILS. 

effective pressure exerted. Should the expansion line fall below the 
atmospheric line, the area of the loop thus formed should be measured 
in like manner and deducted the same as the compression and counter- 
pressure. If the diagram is also divided by lines drawn parallel to the 
atmospheric line into equal spaces and corresponding to a certain 
number of pounds of pressure, say five pounds, as per scale, beginning 
at vacuum, the operator is enabled readily to read the general charac- 
teristics by sight. A very simple method of measuring diagrams has 
been suggested, which is much easier than the above and reduces lia- 
bility of error. Take a narrow strip of paper which has a straight 
edge, place it across the diagram, and let one end of this strip come 
directly over the atmospheric line; then with a knife-blade or sharp 
pencil mark the length of the first space as determined by the steam 
line; then move the paper along to the next space, placing the mark 
made by the pencil over the atmospheric line; then make another 
mark at the point where it crosses the steam or expansion line, which- 
ever it may be, being careful always to take a point on the upper line, 
which shall represent the mean length as nearly as possible ; so proceed 
until the length of each space has been added to the first ; then measure 
with a rule from the end of the paper to the last pencil mark, divide 
this by the number of spaces to get the average length and multiply 
the quotient by the number of the spring in use, and the result is the 
average impelling pressure per square inch. Proceed in like manner 
to measure the average resisting pressure, etc. Ten is the usual number 
of spaces used, but for exactness twenty is better. 

A quicker method of ascertaining the effective pressure, whether in 
condensing or non-condensing engines, is to measure the spaces between 
the upper and lower lines of the diagram without regard to the atmos- 
pheric line, and then proceed in the manner above stated. This does 
away with separate measurements, excepting when a loop is formed in 
non-condensing engines. 

LUBRICATING OILS. 
Points to be considered when purchasing" Lubricating* Oils. 

1. Safety, determined by flash and firing points, and also by its free- 
dom from any tendency to oxidize. 

2. Body at the temperature at which the oil has to do its duty. This 
is at present determined by the oil's viscosity considered with its 
specific gravity. 

3. Chemical action on metals. Apart from the wear and tear caused 
by the use of an oil of a body too thin for the bearing it has to lubricate, 
much damage may be done to a bearing by lubricating it with an oil 
which contains, or will produce, acid, or which in some manner acts 
detrimentally upon the metals. 

4. Durability, ascertained very largely by the tendency to evaporate 
when heated, by its attenuation under heat, and also more or less indi- 
cated by the flashing point. 

5. Freezing Point, or the degree at which it becomes solid. This, 
however, need not be so particularly regarded when the oil is required 
for the lubrication of machinery in a room kept at an equable tempera- 
ture : at the same time it is a point that should never be overlooked. 

6. Cost-price. 

Action of different Oils upon Metals. — The results of experi- 
ments by I. J. Redwood on the different kinds of metals are as follows: 
Iron is least affected by seal oil, and most by tallow oil. 



LUBRICATING OILS. 219 

Brass is not affected by rape oil, slightly bv seal oil and most by olive 
oil. 

Tin is not affected by rape oil, slightly by olive oil and most by cotton- 
seed oil. 

Lead is least affected by olive oil and most by whale oil ; but whale, 
lard, and sperm oils all act to very nearly the same extent on lead. 

Zinc seems, by the four actual weighings that were of any value, not 
to be acted on by mineral lubricating oil, slightly by lard oil and most 
by tallow oil. 

Copper is not affected by mineral lubricating oil, slightly by sperm 
oil and most by tallow oil. 

Mineral lubricating oil has no action on zinc and copper, acts slightly 
on brass, and most on lead. 

Olive oil acts least on tin and most on copper. 

Lard oil acts least on zinc and most on copper. 

Cotton-seed oil acts least on lead and most on tin. 

Sperm oil acts least on brass and most on zinc. 

Whale oil has no action on tin, acts slightly on brass and most on lead. 

Seal oil acts least on brass and most on copper. 

Points to be considered in judging- Hydro-carbon Oils. 

1. Color. Should not exhibit great florescence, though they should al- 
ways possess some, when observed in a reflected light. Should be per- 
fectly clear and free from cloudiness. The latter may indicate, 1, 
water, 2, an excess of paraffine. Should the cloudiness result from 
cause 2, it will disappear upon heating the oil. 

2. Odor. Little or no odor ; what little there is should be only that 
which is characteristic of petroleum. 

3. Cold test. Should not solidify at any temperature over 32° F. 

4. Freedom from acid and alkali. Should be quite free from acid and 
alkali. These may be present through imperfect manipulation in 
refining. 

Wash a sample of oil with about half its bulk of distilled water, 
draw the water off, and add a few drops of alcoholic solution of 
phenolpthalein; if these turn a red color then the presence of alkali is 
indicated. To detect acid, dip a strip of litmus paper into the water. 
The change in the color of the paper will denote the presence of acid. 

5. Saponification. Should not saponify, when treated with an 
alkali. 

6. Action of sulphuric acid. Sulphuric acid added should give a 
yellowish brown tint only. Should it give a dark brown or black 
color, with a large increase of temperature, an inferior, or an oil loaded 
with resin or fat oils, is indicated. 

7. Action of air. A thin coating on a metallic surface which is ex- 
posed to the air should maintain its consistency. It should not 
oxidize or become gummy, nor should become rancid or bad smelling. 

8. Evaporation. Should not lose weight by exposure at any temper- 
ature under 200° F., and should not lose 5 per cent, of weight when 
exposed for 10 hours at a temperature of 212° F. 

9. Flash point. Should never possess a flashing point of less than 
350° F. for machinery and shafting oils. 

The flashing point for cylinder oils should be much higher, but the 
requisite flashing point varies according to the condition present in the 
cylinders being lubricated. 

When it is desired to use pure mineral hydro-carbon oils upon bear- 
ings hitherto lubricated by fish, animal or vegetable oils, or by oils in 



220 LUBRICATING OILS. 

which these descriptions named more or less appear, it will be found 
convenient to make the change gradually, using the following 
mixtures : 

1st week, 1 part pure oil and 3 parts of the old oil. 

2d " 2 parts " " " 2 " " " " " 

Pure mineral oil drives out so rapidly any deposits of gum left by 
oils previously used that in some cases the mineral oil has been con- 
demned for working black, whereas it was simply scouring out objec- 
tionable deposits. 

It is, of course, preferable to use pure mineral oil from the com- 
mencement, but in valves and cylinders it is sometimes wise not to 
use the heavy cylinder oils until all the grit and dirt, too often found 
in new steam-pipes, have passed away, These oils, being more tena- 
cious than tallow, are liable to hold the grit upon the wearing surfaces, 
thereby causing the damage sometimes complained of by engineers. 
As a matter of precaution it is perhaps wise to use tallow for the first 
week, after which oil and tallow mixed, gradually decreasing the 
proportion of tallow until oil only is used. 

In most cases more oil is given to the valves and pistons than is 
actually necessary. Besides this waste of oil, much damage is caused 
to the India rubber valves in consequence of this practice. 

Mineral hydro-carbon oils possess a quality which is of great impor- 
tance to some oil users. None of the animal, vegetable or fish oils remain 
liquid in as cold a temperature as most brands of mineral oils. Some 
of these do not become solid in a temperature of 32° F. They possess 
a cold test of 7° under freezing point, whilst neat's-foot and similar oils 
become solid at about 50° F. 

For the lubrication of journals or bearings exposed to the cold, the 
mineral is, therefore, the only oil that can be satisfactorily used. 

Spontaneous Combustion.— Oxidation or the tendency to absorb 
oxygen from the atmosphere exists more or less in all vegetable, ani- 
mal and fish oils. Hydro-carbon oils are free from it. The oils which 
possess this property most largely are not used for lubrication. Oxida- 
tion entails risk of fire from spontaneous combustion. An insurance 
expert states that all persons using fish oils, lard oils and other animal 
fats, as well as vegetable oils, run a risk of spontaneous combustion, 
but he shows that the danger is avoidable, or else can be completely 
guarded against, by the mixture of mineral oils with the animal, fish 
or vegetable oils. For instance, he gives the proportion at 33 to 40 
per cent, of mineral with lard oil, 25 per cent, with sperm oil, but will 
not stipulate any proportion for cotton-seed oil, as he claims that a mix- 
ture of 75 per cent, of mineral oil with it will not save it from spon- 
taneous combustion. Adulterated oils are considered very dangerous, 
and the highest recommendation is given to mineral oils which are now 
generally used by the woolen and cotton-mills for lubrication of all light 
bearings, and by this means the danger of spontaneous combustion has 
been almost entirely removed. 

On the other hand, some experts assert that fires have been caused 
entirely owing to the spontaneous combustion of oils contained in 
mixed oils. If this be the case, it probably arose from the use of very 
inferior mineral oil — that is, mineral oil possessing a very low flash 
point, which when exposed to a high temperature evaporated, leaving 
the other oils contained in the mixture without the necessary proportion 
of mineral oils, without which spontaneous combustion would ensue. 



LUBRICATING OILS. 



221 



Some of the insurance companies in the United States have given 
considerable attention to this question of spontaneous combustion, and 
the Associated Mutual Insurance Companies of Boston made some ex- 
periments upon cotton waste, saturated with different oils, and then en- 
closed in a heated chamber. It was found that the temperature of the 
cotton waste, oiled with pure lard oil, reached in four hours 428° F., 
whilst that which had been oiled with neat's-foot oil reached 446° F. in 
six hours. In half an hour after each ball of oiled v» aste was taken 
out from the receptacle in which they had been exposed to these heats, 
they were a glowing mass, which a slight breath of* air caused to burst 
into flames. 

Similar balls of cotton waste, saturated with a mixture of 50 per 
cent, neat's-foot oil and 50 per cent, mineral hydro-carbon; with 67 
per cent, neat's-foot oil and 33 per cent, mineral hydro-carbon ; with 
75 per cent, neat's-foot oil and 25 per cent, mineral hydro-carbon, 
were also made. The temperature of the first after being in the heated 
chamber seven hours was only 214° F. ; the temperature of the second 
and third, after being exposed for 1\ hours, did not exceed 214° F., and 
when taken out none of them showed signs of charring. It is possible 
that when an oil, such as lard or neat's-foot, is exposed to the heat of a 
room and the heat and friction of a bearing, a larger proportion of 
mineral oil would be necessary, in order to prevent undue risk from 
spontaneous combustion. The two oils most liable to cause fires 
from this cause are cotton-seed and olive. 

When a mixed oil has been improperly blended, or when through 
cold the component oils have become separated, and the oil user has 
unknowingly been lubricating with almost or quite pure oils, the 
danger from spontaneous combustion may be incurred. 

COMPARATIVE TESTS OP THE VISCOSITY OF 

DIFFERENT OILS. 

(The viscosity of sperm oil being taken as 100.) 





Sp. gravity Sp. gravity 
at 60° F. | at 70° F. 


Viscosity 
at 70° F. 


Viscosity 
at 110° F. 


Sperm oil 


.875 
.915 

.915 

.915 
.915 

.960 

.925 

.915 

.910 
.885 
.860 
.885 
.865 
.S60 


.854 
.894 

.892 

.890 
.894 

.'945 

.910 

.896 

.890 
.862 
.843 

!850 

.840 


100 
211 

257 

218 

257 
too thick 
too thick 

348 

218 

153 
153 

118 

159 

128 


50 


Super filtered olive oil... 
American animal oil ~| 

(sometimes sold as V ... 

neat's-foot) J 


93 

109 

93 




113 




nearlv 700 


Castor oil, best 


651 


American mineral 
hydro-carbon 


103 


American mineral 
hydro-carbon 


82 


English and American 
mineral hydro-carbon. 


57 
28 


U (I 

Scotch mineral 


50 

28 




62 


U u 


51 







222 



LUBRICATING OILS. 



FLASHING POINTS OF LUBRICATING OILS GENERALLY 
IN USE. 





Degrees F. 




Degrees F. 




520 to 530 
550 to 570 
575 to 590 
525 to 535 
540 to 545 


English cottonseed oil. 
American " " 

Rape oil 

Best English mineral... 
Best American mineral 
Scotch mineral 


575 to 585 




over 600 




570 to 580 




340 to 400 


Castor oil 


340 to 400 




300 to 350 









COMPARATIVE VALUES OF LUBRICATING OILS 
(Taking pure Southern Sperm Oil at 100). 



Fish oils :— 


Southern sperm 


Animal oils :- 


-Lard, Winter 64 




oil 100 




" Summer 61 




Arctic sperm oil. 55 
"Whale, best 44 


Seed oils : — 


Rape 44 






Cottonseed, best.. 44 




Shark 33 




" English 40 




Modorous seal.... 44 


Hydro-carbon oils :— Resin 22 




Cod 44 




" pale 28 


Nut oils : — 


Groundnut 44 




Best Scotch, .885* 9 


Olive oils: — 


Malaga, best... 70 




Common " .885 7 




Seville, " 70 




Bloomless, .885 20 




Gallipoli, " 68 




American, .910 20 




Neapolitan, " 66 




" .925, red 21 




Mogodore, " 63 




" .925, pale 30 




Smyrna, " 61 




" .860 21 




Tunis, " 59 




" bloomless 


Animal oils:- 


-Neat's-foot, En- 




.850 22 




glish, pure, 90 to 100 




English, .910, 




Animal, Amer- 




best 20 




ican best 66 




" .860, best 25 


Note.— The 


proportionate values 


indicated above must necessarilv 


vary with the constant fluctuations 


of the market 


*Spec. gravity. 



Simple Test of Kerosene Oil.— Take an ordinary pint tin cup. 
Fill it within an inch of the top with water warmed to 120° F. Pour 
on this water 3 or 4 tablespoonfuls of the oil to be tested. Stir the 
oil and water together, and wait a short time, say a minute or two, for 
the oil to collect on the top. Try the thermometer again, and if the 
temperature is more than 1 degree from 120 p F., add a little cold or 
hot water, as the case may be, so as to bring the temperature to within 
1 degree of 120° F. Then stir again and give time, as before, for the 
oil to come to the top. Now apply a burning match or lighted taper 
on a level with the top of the cup, say within half an inch of the oil. 
If within one second no flash occurs, the oil is reasonably safe: other- 
wise it is unsafe. Purchase 4 or 5 gallons of oil at a time, and apply 
this test at each purchase. 



DIFFERENT GRADES OF PIG IRON. 223 

CONDITIONS GOVERNING THE PRODUCTION OF DIF- 
FERENT GRADES OF PIG IRON. 

In Lederbur's " Handbuch der Eisenhuettenkunde " tbe conditions 
upon which the grade of iron is dependent are given as follows : 

First. Upon the chemical composition of the individual ores. A 
high manganese pig cannot be produced from an ore low in manganese, 
or a low phosporous pig from phosphoric iron. 

Second. Upon the chemical composition of the whole mixture. 
Reduction of manganese is facilitated by a strongly basic condition of 
the slag-forming constituents of the mixture ; sulphur is elimina'ed by 
a strongly basic slag. Moreover, the melting point of the slag pro- 
duced depends upon its chemical composition. In general, the greater 
the amount of elements more difficult to reduce than iron (silicon, 
manganese, etc.) it is desired to reduce and cause to alloy with the 
iron, the higher the melting point of the slag must be. 

Third. Upon the mineralogical condition of the constituents of the 
mixture. The temperature of formation of the slag is more important 
than the melting point with regard to the grade of iron produced, and 
depends upon the amount of silica in the slag, and the condition in 
which the slag-forming constituents exist. The different reducibility 
of different ores must also be taken into consideration. In smelting 
ore difficult to reduce, more iron is slagged off than when smelting 
easily reducible ores. It is also harder, in the first case, to produce 
iron "high in silicon, carbon or manganese. 

Fourth. Upon the temperature of the melting zone of the furnace. 
The reduction of manganese and silicon in large quantity requires high 
temperatures, so that high silicon or manganese pig cannot be pro- 
duced in a furnace working cold. The temperature of the furnace 
depends upon the temperature of the blast, the nature of the fuel, the 
proportion between fuel and ore, and the heat consumption of the 
furnace. The latter is greater when large amounts of manganese and 
silicon are reduced and when smelting ores reducible with difficulty, 
than in the reverse case. All these conditions together cause a larger 
fuel consumption and the employment of a more highly heated blast, 
the higher in silicon or manganese the pig is desired to be. 

Fifth. Upon the quantity of blast which the furnace receives in 
unit of time, or more correctly, upon the proportion this amount of 
air bears to the cubic capacity of the furnace. The more air a furnace 
receives the quicker the smelting proceeds and the greater the quantity 
of iron produced, but the more easily unreduced iron may be slagged 
off, and the less the amount of silicon and manganese reduced. There- 
fore, a furnace making white iron requires closer watching than when 
making gray iron or high manganese iron. By the proper mixing of 
several ores, or by mixing the same with suitable flux, different grades 
of iron may be produced from the same ores, even when the original 
condition of the ores appears to be more suitable for one purpose than 
the other. Bog ores, intimately mixed with quartz or quartzy red 
hematite ores, nearly always promote the production of gray iron ; on 
the other hand, high manganese spathic ores when used to produce 
gray iron have a tendency to make the iron white if cooled suddenly, 
and this effect is still more marked if white iron or spiegel is pro- 
duced. A large amount of alumina in the ore makes it more suitable 
for making gray than white iron, because it raises the temperature of 
formation and melting point of the sla°r. Conversely the production 
of gray iron is more difficult if ores low in alumina are used. 



224 PROPERTIES OF VARIOUS MATERIALS. 

It is self-evident that in the production of a specified iron, no ore 
should be used from which elements detrimental to the employment 
for which the iron is intended might be introduced. The employment 
of spiegel generally requires freedom from phosphorus ; this is also 
the case with gray pig for Bessemer use. It would be absurd to smelt 
phosphoric ores for this purpose. The amount of phosphorus is of 
small importance in foundry or ordinary white iron; the basic, Bes- 
semer or Thomas process requires a high phosphorous pig ; for this 
purpose phosphoric ores are employed. A large amount of manganese 
is detrimental to foundry iron, as it has a tendency to make it slightly 
harder and whiter. For making white iron it is more advantageous 
than detrimental. High phosphorous manganiferous ores are more 
suitable for the manufacture of white iron, while low manganese ores 
may be employed for both purposes, but are better adapted, especially 
if high in alumina, for gray than for white iron. 

The purpose for which the ore is used must depend upon the above 
considerations, according to its nature. 

Independent of the size of the furnace, the character of pig iron 
produced has a very marked influence upon the daily output. 

The output of a given furnace being greatest when running on white 
(or high) irons, the production, when different grades of iron are 
made, has been found to be about as follows : 



White (or high) pig iron 100 tons. 

Gray (or foundry) pig iron 65 " 

Spiegeleisen (10 to 12 per cent, manganese) 60 " 

Spiegeleisen (high manganese) 40 " 

Ferro-manganese (60 per cent, manganese) 25 " 



STRENGTH AND OTHER PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS. 

Composition of Cast Iron. — The following table shows the chemi- 
cal composition of a number of varieties of cast iron which are distin- 
guished by especially good mechanical properties. 



Constituents. 



Maximum. 



Fixed carbon 

Silicon 

Phosphorus.. 

Sulphur 

Manganese .. 



0.78 
1.96 
1.10 
0.14 
1.51 



Minimum. 



0.30 
1.13 

0.28 
0.03 
0.58 



Mean. 



0.475 
1.434 
0.587 
0.074 
1.037 



Cast iron whose composition corresponds to the mean figures is best 
adapted for the manufacture of special varieties. By increasing the 
content of silicon it becomes softer, and by decreasing harder. 



PROPERTIES OF VARIOUS MATERIALS. 225 

Effect of Remelting on the Strength of Cast Iron. 





Transverse 


Crushing 


Calculated tensile 


No. of melting. 


strength 4^ feet 


strength per 


strength per 




bars 1 inch square. 


square inch. 


square inch. 




Tons. 


Tons. 


Tons. 


1 


0.2187 


44.0 


9.502 


2 


0.1973 


43.6 


8.217 


3 


0.1793* 


41.1 


7.351* 


4 


0.1846 


40.7* 


7.697 


5 


0.1927 


41.1 


8.151 


6 


0.1959 


41.1 


8.349 


7 


0.2005 


40.9 


8.655 


8 


0.2192 


41.1 


9.847 


9 


0.2440 


55.1 


10.07 


10 


0.2531 


57.7 


10.40 


11 


0.2910 


69.8 


11.71 


12 


0.3090* 


73.1 


12.51* 


13 


0.2834 


66.0 


11.54 


14 


0.2700 


95.9* 


9.154 


15 


0.1657 


76.7 


5.366 


16 


0.1568 


70.5 


5.116 


17 








18 


0.1396 


88.0 


4.196 



JSote. — Maximum and m 



l ni mam i 



esults marked.* 



Table of the Strength, Extensibility and Stiffness of Jletals and Woods, 
Cast Iron being 1, or unity. 



Metals. 


Strength. 


E: 


ctensibihty. 


Stiffness. 


Iron, wrought 


1.12 
0.65 

0.435 
0.365 
0.1S2 
0.096 




0.86 
1.25 

0.9 
0.5 
0.75 
2.5 


1.3 
0.535 




0.49 




0.76 


Tin 


0.25 




0385 







Woods. 


Strength. 


Extensibility. 


Stiffness. 


Oak 

Ash 

Elm 


.1 0.25 

0.23 

.| 0.21 

.1 0.3 

0.15 

0.24 


2.8 
2.6 
2.9 
2.6 
2.1 
2.9 


0.093 
0.089 
0.073 




1154 


Beech 


0.073 


Mahogany, Honduras 


0.487 



226 PROPERTIES OF VARIOUS MATERIALS, 



Proportions and Strength of Single Riveted Joints in Wrought Iron 
Plates for Girder Work Only. 













r2 


3i 










cd 






c 

cc 


CD i— 1 






<D 


o 
p=3 




"S 




O 


© » § 


Strain 


rm the 




+3 

> 


o 

^2 


S3 




CD 


C O aj 

1^ 3 


solid p 
plate pe 


art of 
r sq. in. 


O 


«w 


© 


CD 


-M 


r- •- ' 


■ujJS 






co 

CO 

CD 


O 

05 


"S, 

CD 


CD 


a 
'p 


<4-i 


-1-3 CO 






C 






rQ 




O 


C C CD 








CD 

s 

ft 


o3 

en 


CD 

01 

a. 


o 
ft. 

OS 


.2 

OS 
tf 


Si! 






.2 

IS 

H 


Lbs. 


Tons. 


4 


i 


1 


4 


i 


0.667 


36,898 


24,611 


11.00 




A* 


14 


£1 


l 


0.722 


" 


26,640 


11.89 


(< 


§ 


14 


14 


11 


0.750 


« 


27,673 


12.35 


ff 


A 


a 


i e B 


* 


0.643 


« 


23,725 


10.59 




S 


1A 


if 


14 


0.684 


" 


25,238 


11.27 


<< 


A* 


14 


l'A 


IS 


0.708 


" 


26,124 


11.66 


(< 


4 


H 


IS 


11 


0.733 


« 


27,046 


12.07 


i 


1 


U 


A 


* 


0.600 


<< 


22,139 


9.88 


«< 


A 


H 


n 


14 


0.650 


«< 


23.984 


10.71 


« 


4* 


14 


i 


IS 


0.667 


« 


24,611 


11.00 


u 


A 


Hi 


IS 


15 


0.709 


« 


26,161 


11.68 


" 


S 


2i 


ii 


2 


0.722 


« 


26,840 


12.00 


A 


7 


1A 


s 


1 


0.588 


<< 


21,696 


9.68 


" 


4 


11 


g 


H 


0.636 


" 


23,467 


10.47 


(( 


A* 


11 


ly S 


14 


0.654 


" 


24,131 


10.77 


" 


1 


2 


IS 


11 


0.687 


tt 


25,349 


11.32 


1 


A 


1A 


i 


U 


0.609 


" 


22,471 


10.00 


« 


S 


ltt 


1A 


14 


0.630 


(t 


23,246 


10.38 


« 


tt* 


2 


1A 


11 


0.660 


" 


24,353 


10.87 


" 


£ 


2S 


IS 


24 


0.684 


" 


25,238 


11.27 


A 


a 


1A 


t! 


IS 


0.600 


it 


22,139 


9.88 




15 


HI 


14 


IS 


0.621 


" 


22,914 


10.23 


« 


f* 


24 


IS 


IS 


0.649 


«( 


23,946 


10.69 


«« 


11 


2S 


i 9 


2i 


0.695 


<« 


25,644 


11.45 


4 


u 


itt 


1 


14 


0.592 


" 


21,844 


9.75 


" 


1 


1lB 
1 TB 


1A 


If 


0.613 


a 


22,618 


10.10 


<« 


11* 


2t 3 g 


If 


2 


0.628 


" 


23,172 


10.35 


« 


1 


24 


IS 


2i 


0.650 


a 


23,984 


10.71 



Note. — The rivet holes marked * are the most suitable for the given 
thickness of plate in ordinary cases. 

Strength of Alloys when Pulled in the Direction of their Length. 



Parts. Parts. 

Gold 5, Copper 1 

Brass 

Copper 10, Tin 1 

8, " 1 

4, " 1 

Bronze (gun metal) 30,000 



Pounds. 
,...50,000 
....45,000 
...32,000 
,...36,000 
.35,000 



Parts. Parts. 

Silver 5, Copper 

" 4 Tin 


Pounds. 

L 48,000 

L 41,000 


Tin 10, Antimony 
" 10 Zinc 


L 11,000 

L 12 914 


" 10, Lead ] 


L 6,804 



PROPERTIES OF VARIOUS MATERIALS. 227 



Ultimate Tensile Strength of Copper and its Alloys, arid other 
Metals. 



Description of Metal. 


Specific 
gravity. 


Ultimate 

tensile 

strength per 

square inch. 






Tons. 
15 


Cast 




8 48 to 11 67 






16 


Bolts with 1 per cent, phosphorus 

" 1 

" " 1.5 " 

« << i « « 

" " 2 " " 
<( k -i «« « 


8.202 
8.592 
8.876 

8.614""" 


7.56 
16.47 
17.13 
19.20 
20.25 
20 34 


(t ' (( <( << 

« " 2 " " 

(( (< Q <( « 


8.580 
8.615 
8.422 


20.41 
20.27 
21.38 
22.32 
12 94 


11 " 1 " 




13 71 


10 " 1 " 




14 73 


9 " 1 " 




17 00 


Gun metaJ, average strength of good bronze. 
Gun metal, average results of tests of speci- 
mens from bronze-guns — elastic strength, 




14.73 




12 19 


Gun metal — American guns: 

Gun heads 


8.523 
8.765 

8.584 

8.953 

8.313 


13 24 




20.76 


Small bars cast in same moulds 


18 76 


Small bars cast separately in 


16 82 


Small bars cast separately in 


11.51 


Aluminium bronze, 90 copper, 1 aluminium. 


32.67 




43 00 


Tin cast 




2 11 




7.297 


.95 




.81 






.86 






1.00 






1.336 


Soft solder, 2 tin, 1 lead 




3.35 






8.02 


" " " " 2 copper, 1 zinc 




12.90 






46.00 


" " 70 " 30 " 




36.00 


" wire 




40.77 






22.00 









228 PROPERTIES OF VARIOUS MATERIALS. 



Ultimate Tensile Strength of Copper and its Alloys, and other Metals. 



Description of Metal. 



Alloys of copper, zinc, iron and tin- 

" Sterro-metal : " 

Copper 10, iron 10, zinc 80 

60 " 3, " 39, tin 1.5 

" 60 " 4, " 44, " 2 

" cast in sand 

" cast in iron, annealed 

" cast in iron, forged red-hot 

Copper 60, iron 2, zinc 37, tin 1 

60, " 2, " 35, " 2 

" 55, " 1.77, " 42.36, tin 0.83..... 

" cast 

" forged red-hot 

" drawn cold 



Specific 
gravity. 



7.000 



Ultimate 

tensile 

strength per 

square inch. 



Tons. 



3.17 
24.00 

19.25 
24.25 
31.00 
34.00 

38.00 

27.0 
34.0 
38.0 



Hardness of Woods. The relative hardness of woods is calculated 
by the hickory, which is the toughest. Estimating that, at 100, we get 
for pignut hickory, 86; white oak, 84; white ash, 77; dogwood. 74; 
scrub oak, 73; white hazel, 72; apple tree, 70; red oak, 69; white 
beech, 65 ; black walnut, 65 ; black birch, 62; yellow and black oak, 
60 ; hard maple, 56 ; white elm, 56 ; red cedar, 56 ; cherry, 55 ; yellow 
pine, 53 ; chestnut, 52; yellow poplar, 51 ; butternut and white birch, 
43, and white pine, 35. According to this formula woods possessing 
a degree of hardness equal to only about 40 per cent, or less than that 
of hickory should not be classed as hard woods. Such woods are, 
however, limited in quantity, and are not of sufficient importance to 
justify a classification, and the trade will continue to construe hard 
wood to mean everything except white pine. 

Weight of Wood. One cord air-dried hickory or hard maple weighs 
about 4500 lbs., and is equal to about 2000 lbs. of coal ; one cord air- 
dried white oak weighs about 3850 lbs., and is equal to about 1715 lbs. 
of coal. One cord air-dried beech, red-oak, or black oak weighs about 
3250 lbs., and is equal to about 1450 lbs. of coal. One cord air-dried 
poplar (white wood), chestnut or elm weighs about 2350 lbs., and is 
equal to about 1050 lbs. of coal. One cord air-dried average pine 
weighs about 2000 lbs., and is equal to about 925 lbs. of coal. 

Properties of American Woods. According to Prof. Sargent, the 
strongest wood in the United States is that of the nutmeg hickory of 
the Arkansas region, and the weakest the West Indian birch. The 
most elastic is the tamarak, the white or shell-bark hickory standing 
far below it. The least elastic and the lowest in specific gravity is the 
wood of the fagficus aurea. The highest specific gravity, upon which 
in general depends value as fuel, is attained by the bluewood of 
Texas. 

Treatment of Timber. With proper after-treatment of the wood the 
time of felling seems not to affect its durability. Early winter felling 
(December) should have the preference because less fermentable sap 
is then in the tree, and the timber will season with less care, more 



PROPERTIES OF VARIOUS MATERIALS. 229 



slowly, and more evenly, and before the temperature is warm enough for 
fermentation to set in. If the wood is cut "in the sap, "it is more liable 
to fermentation and to the attacks of insects, and more care is neces- 
sary in seasoning; for the rapid seasoning, due to the warm, dry at- 
mosphere, produces an outer season coat which envelops an unseasoned 
interior liable to decay. When cut in the leaf it is advantageous to let 
the trees lie at full length until the leaves are thoroughly withered 
(two or three weeks) before cutting to size. With coniferous trees this is 
a good practice at any season, and if it can be done, all winter-felled 
trees should be left lying to leaf out in the spring, by which most of the 
sap is worked out and evaporated. 

Always remove bark from felled trees to aid seasoning — but not from 
the standing tree. Never allow the tree to lie directly on the moist 
soil. If winter-felled, shape the timber to size within two weeks after 
felling and leave it placed on blocks — not upon the soil — in the forest, 
or if shaped at home place in a dry, airy — not windy— position away 
from sun and rain. If dried too rapidly, wood warps and splits, the 
cracks collect water and the timber is then easily attacked and 
destroyed by rot. With large logs, choking may be prevented by 
coating the ends with some fatty or oily substance mixed with brick- 
dust, or covering with a piece of linen, cloth, or even paper, or by 
simply shading them to lessen evaporation ; cracks on the sides maybe 
filled with tow or cotton. When piling timber, place laths or sticks 
of uniform size at uniform distances under each log, or post, or tie. 
Sufficiently thorough seasoning for most purposes is obtained in 12 to 
18 months, while for special work, according to the size, from 2 to 10 
years is required. 

CRUSHING RESISTANCE OR COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH 
OP TIMBER. 



(Reduced 


from M 


r. Laslett's Data.) 




Name of Timber. 


Average 

resist- 
ance per 
square 
inch. 


Name of Timber. 


Average 
resist- 
ance per 
square 
inch. 


Specimens: 1-inch, 2-inch, 

3-inch and 4-inch 

cubes. 


Specimens: 1-inch, 2-inch, 

3-inch and 4-inch 

cubes. 


Oak : — English (unsea- 
soned) 


Tons. 

2.194 
3.337 
3.547 
2.437 
2.604 
3.344 
2.709 

2.630 
2.559 
5.208 
5.621 
6.438 
3.776 
2.863 
2.853 
2.503 


Eucalyptus : — Tewart 

Mahogany . 

Iron bark... 

Blue gum... 
Ash: — English 


Tons. 
4.174 
3 198 


English (seasoned) 

French 

Tuscan 


4.601 
3.078 
3.109 


Sardinian 




2.453 


Dantzic 

American, white... 


Elm:— English..., 

Rock 


2.583 
3.832 


" Balti- 


Hornbeam 


3.711 


more.. 




3.102 


Teak, Moulmein 




2.342 


Iron Wood 




2.166 


Chow 




2.596 


Greenheart 




2.000 


Sabicu 




2 537 


Mahogany : — Spanish 

Honduras ... 
Mexican 


Yellow pine 

Pitch pine 

Kauri 


1.877 
2.885 
2.867 



230 PROPERTIES OF VARIOUS MATERIALS, 



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PROPERTIES OF VARIOUS MATERIALS. 231 



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232 PROPERTIES OF VARIOUS MATERIALS, 



CRUSHING RESISTANCE OP COLUMNS OF WOOD. 

English Oak, 3 inches square: Per square 

inch. 

Unseasoned, 9 specimens, 8 to 16 inches high, sp. gr. .922 1.68 tons 

Seasoned, 2 " 17 and 18 " " " .778 2.52 " 

Average of 4 specimens, 6 inches square, 12 to 36 inches high 3.68 " 
« « u 9 u a ]2 to 21 " " 2.85 " 

One specimen, 9 X 10 inches, 24 inches high 3.24 " 

Two " 10 X 11 " 18 and 21 " " 2.72, 2.91 " 

Indian Teak : 
6 inches square, specific gravity, .795 4.38 " 

9 " " " " .838 3.81 " 

Dantzic Fir, under 30 inches high, average results: 

6 inches square, specific gravity, .600 3.897 " 

9X10 inches, " " .608 2.562 " 

10 inches square, " " .660 1.812 " 

10 " " " " .563 2.446 " 

English Oak and Fir of considerable length in proportion to the 
scantling: 



English oak, 2 'English oak, 4 
inches square. I inches square. 



Si 



Inch's. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 
10 
11 
12 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 



Spec'c 
grav'y. 



.740 



.720 



.720 



.720 



Spec'c 
grav'y. 



Tons. 
3.37 
3.41 
3.47 
3.50 
3.94 
3.72 
3.69 
3.63 
3.75 

slipped 
3.69 
3.44 



2.75 



2.63 



.958 
.972 
.934 
.930 
.932 
.972 
.946 
.932 
.921 
1.003 



WD OJ 

a & 



u !& 



Dantzic fir, 2 I Riga fir, 2 
inches square. 'inches square. 



Spec'c 
grav'y. 



Spec'c 
grav'y. 



* & 



rons. 


.756 


.... 


.756 


.... 


.720 


.... 


.756 




.669 




.648 




.617 


.... 


.621 


.... 


.720 


.... 


.669 




.726 




.774 


1.60 




1.58 




1.69 




1.72 


.636 ' 


1.76 




1.76 


.... 


1.75 


.... 


1.63 


.... 


1.47 




1.88 


.684 



Tons. 
2.72 
3.17 
2.97 
3.44 
3.44 
3.25 
3.19 
3.03 
3.03 
3.13 
2.91 
3.00 



2.72 



Tons. 

2.47 
2.1.1 

2.88 
2.25 
2.63 
2.81 
2.78 
2.75 
2.50 
2.00 
2.44 
2.78 



2.47 



1.72 



PROPERTIES OF VARIOUS MATERIALS. 233 



Streng-th of Stones.— To judge of the strength and durability of 
stones is a difficult matter. If the stone be fractured and presents, 
under a magnifying glass, a bright, clear, sharp surface, it is not likely 
to crumble from decay. Of course, samples can be tested for their 
crushing and tensile strengths, etc. And we can tell something of the 
weathering qualities by observing similar stones in old buildings; 
much, however, depends whether the stones come from the same part 
of the quarry. Another test is to weigh different samples when dry ; 
immerse them in water for a given period, say 24 hours, then weigh 
them again, and the sample absorbing the least amount of water (in 
proportion to its original weight) is, of course, the best stone. 

Another test is to soak the stone in water for 2 or 3 days and put it 
out to freeze ; if it does not chip or crack, it will probably weather 
well. Chemical tests are made sometimes, such as using sulphuric 
acid to detect the presence of lime and magnesia ; or soaking the stones 
in a concentrated boiling solution of sulphate of soda ; the stones are 
then exposed to the air, when the solution crystallizes in the pores 
and chips off particles of the stone, acting similarly to frost. The 
stones are weighed before and after the tests, the one snowing the least 
proportional weight being, of course, the better. 

Fire Bricks and Their Properties. — Fire bricks are made by a 
process very similar to ordinary bricks. When broken they should 
show a compact and uniform close-grained structure, being free from 
stones, cracks, etc. ; when struck they should emit a clear and ringing 
sound. The expansion of ordinary fire bricks by heating in rising 
from 32° to 212° F. is 0.0005, according to Rankine. All fire bricks 
forming the lining of a chimney shaft should be set in ground fire 
clay mixed with water to the consistency of mortar. The bricks are 
sometimes, before being laid, dipped into a liquid of creamy fire clay, 
and when laid in place hammered together so as to be when finished 
brick and brick. This method is now largely adopted, and answers 
admirably, especially where the temperature is high. 

TENSILE STRENGTH OF STONE, BRICKS AND CEMENT. 



Description of Material. 


Weight per 
cubic foot. 


Ultimate ten- 
sile strength 
per square inch 


Sandstone 


lbs. 


tons. 
0.150 






.655 


Arbroath pavement 




.563 


Caithness " 




.471 


White Marble 




.322 


it It 




.246 


Flint glass rod annealed 


„ 


1.07 


Green glass rod 




1.29 


White crow n glass rod 




1.14 


Thin glass globes, cohesion 




2.23 


Plaster of Paris 




lbs. 
71 


Mortar of quartzose, sand and hy- 1 

draulic lime J 

Mortar of quartzose, sand and ordi- ^ 




136 to 85 




51 to 21 


nary lime j 







17 



234 PROPERTIES OF VARIOUS MATERIALS. 



TENSILE STRENGTH OF STONE, BRICKS AND CEMENT. 



Description of Matekial. 


Weight per 
cubic foot. 


Ultimate ten- 
sile strength 
per square inch. 


Adhesion of plaster of Paris to brick j 
or stone, average J 

Adhesion of bricks cemented with j 
Portland cement 12 months old, > 
and 1 cement to 1 sand J 

Gault clay bricks, pressed; in air 

" " " " in water... 

Gault clay bricks wire cut; in air 

" " "■ " in water . 

Gault clay bricks, perforated ; in air... 
" " " in water 


lbs. 


tons. 
50 


neat 

45 
46 
68 
47 
108 
84 
78 
96 

74 
76 
48 

40 

126 
123 


ltol 

44 
46 
43 
39 
83 
75 
63 


" " in water 


70 


Staffordshire blue brick, pressed with ) 

frog ; in air J 
Staffordshire blue brick, pressed with ) 

frog ; in water j 
Staffordshire blue brick, rough, with- { 

out frog ; in air J 
Staffordshire blue brick, rough, with- 1 

out frog ; in water J 
Fareham red bricks; in air 


56 
37 
47 

29 

83 
62 


Portland cement : 


862—408 


Average of do. per bushel 115.2 lbs. 
Portland cement, 123 lbs. per bushel, 
mixed with equal weight of Thames 
mud: 


90 

neat cement 
363 
416 
523 
547 
600 
583 
590 


385.5 

cement & sand 
157 


" " " 1 month 


201 


" " " 6 months 


284 


" " " 12 months 


319 


" " " 2 years 


351 


« a a 4 a 


363 


<( (( <( y << 


384 


Portland cement, 112 lbs. per bushel, 
mixed with various proportions of 
sand ; 12 months old : 


241 


5 " 1 " 




214 


7 « l " 




163 


Roman cement — averages : 




90 


" " " ' 1 month 




115 


" " " 6 months 




210 


" " " 12 " 




286 


" " " 2 years 




243 


« «< « A It 




281 


U (( «( n (t 




315 



PROPERTIES OF VARIOUS MATERIALS. 235 



WEIGHT, STRENGTH, ETC., OF BUILDING STONES. 

Compiled from experiments and tests by Gen. Gillmore, Prof. E. T. 

Cox and others, by Frank W. Vogdes. 







a 

.2 


^^ _d ! 




1° 


o.2 


M 


Kind. 


Locality. 


v> 


^ q P 
D S3'" 


"i*g 


ffl.2 


•-§"& 


a 






'3 
o 
Pw 


rj ■ p.! 




£* 

> o 


03 O 




Sandstones. 














Brown 


Middletown, 
















Conn. 


Bed 


6,950 


2.36 


148.0 


1-40 




" ] 


1/ong Meadow, 
















Mass. 


« 


14,650 








Highest 


" 


1/ong Meadow, 
















Mass. 


u 


8,800 








Lowest 


« 


Little Falls, 
















N. Y. 


(< 


9,850 


2.25 


140.6 


1-34 




Red 


Haverstraw, 
















N. Y. 


(( 


4,350 


2.13 


133.1 


1-23 




Pink 


Medina, N. Y. 


(( 


17,250 


2.41 


150.0 


1-55 




Drab 


Berea, O. 


a 


10,250 


2.11 


131.8 


1-16 


Mean. 




u a 


a 


7,250 


2.2 


137.5 


1-24 


Lowest. 


Gray 


Amherst, 0. 


<< 


8,250 


2.19 


136.9 


1-19 




Drab 


Vermilion, 0. 


n 


8,250 


2.16 


135.3 


1-19 




Red 
















Brown 


Seneca, 0. 


ci 


10.100 


2.39 


140.3 


1-32 






Cleveland, 0. 


ii 


7,910 


2.24 


140.0 


1-37 






Marblehead, 
















0. 


a 


7,800 


2.31 


144.0 


1-19 




Drab 


Buena Vista, 
















0. 


« 


12,500 


2.19 


137.0 


1-20 




Purple 


Fond du Lac, 
















Wis. 


« 


6,250 


2.22 


138.8 


1-22 






Marquette, 
















Wis. 


« 


7,275 


2.28 


142.8 


1-20 




Pink 


Kasota, Minn. 


<( 


11,200 


2.63 


164.0 


1-56 




Buff 


Frontenac, 
















Minn. 


it 


7,775 


2.32 


145.0 


1-28 






Warrensburg, 
















Mo. 


a 


5,000 


2.14 


133.0 


1-20 






Lee Co., Iowa. 


u 


3,925 


2.18 


136.3 


1-20 






Craigleith, 
















Scotland. 


a 


11,500 


2.26 


141.0 


1-34 






Dorchester, 
















N. B. 


u 


9,200 










Brown 


Mary's Point, 












F. E. 


dark 


N. B. 

TAmestones. 


(( 


7,700 








Kidder's 
test. 




North River 


a 


22,420 


2.72 


170.3 


1-217 


Gov. test 




blue flagging 












Rock 




N. Y. 








1 


1 


Isl. 



236 PROPERTIES OF VARIOUS MA 


TERI 


A.LS. 






fl 




<§£ 


M 

^-.o 


o.2 


03 






o 


•- &jo2 




_ -*> 


u 


Kind. 


Locality. 


+j> 


rB a c 

10 nj' H 


3 > 

03 J5 


lis 


"43 s- 


C3 

a 






to 
C 




co too 


■s-§ 


e3 O 
o3 




Limestones. 
















Glens' Falls, 












Gov. test 




N. Y. 


Bed 


11,475 


2.70 


168.8 




Rock 
Isl. 




Glens' Falls, 
















N. Y. 


Edge 


10,750 


« 


<< 








Lake Cham- 
















plain, N. Y. 


Bed 


25,000 


2.75 


172.0 








Lake Cham- 
















plain, N. Y. 


Edge 


21,500 


tt 


« 






North 


Kingston, 














River 


N. Y. 
Garrison sta- 


Bed 


13,900 


2.69 


168.2 








tion, N. Y. 


" 


18,500 


2.63 


163.5 






Blue 


Williams- 
















vine, N. Y. 


(< 


12,300 


2.64 


165.0 






White 


Marblehill, 0. 


" 


11,400 


2.40 


150.0 


1-33 




Oolitic 
« 


Bedford, Ind. 
Bloom ington, 


(< 


11,750 




148.0 


1-28 






Ind. 


<< 


13,750 




138.0 


1-43 




a 


Ellettsville, 
















Ind. 


tt 


12,625 




152.0 


1-41 




<< 


Ellettsville, 
















Ind. 


a 


13,500 




142.0 


1-28 




a 


Cory don, Ind. 


tt 


10,250 




150.0 


1-27 




Sili- 


Putnamville, 














cious 


Ind. 


a 


11,750 




166.0 


1-170 




Mag- 
















nesian 


Deputy, Ind. 
St. Paul, Ind., 


it 


15,750 




165.0 


1-156 






" Flatrock " 


tt 


16,000 




168.29 


1-336 




it 


Joliet, 111. 


" 


12,775 


2.54 


158.8 


1-51 




a 


Joliet, 111. 


it 


16,900 


2.6 


162.5 


1-139 




tt 


Joliet, 111. 


it 


14,650 


2.54 


158.8 


1-91 




a 


Joliet, 111. 


" 


8,656 


2.61 


163.1 


1-35 




tt 


Lemont, 111. 


tt 


13,264 


2.64 


165.0 


1-89 




tt 


Athens, 111. 


«( 


15,125 


2.51 


157.1 


1-28 




tt 


Athens, 111. 


<( 


9,692 


2.4 


160.5 


1-32 




it 


Nauvoo, 111. 


tt 


8,583 


2.67 


166.8 


1-297 


Pure 
lime- 
stone. 


it 


Hancock Co. 












Gov. test 




111. 


a 


8,500 


2.46 


. 154.3 


1-40 


Rock 
Isl. 


tt 


Sterling, 111. 


tt 


10,500 










it 


Bardstown, 
















Ky. 


tt 


15,500 


2.67 


167.0 


1-80 






Lime Island, 
















Mich. 


it 


18,000 


2.5 


156.3 


1-76 








PROPERTIES OF VARIOUS MATERIALS. 237 



1 




a 

o 


.2^ 




So 

~<8 


o.l 




KIND.' 


Locality. 


O 
Oh 


Crush 
stren 
per in 




"Si© 


Ratio 
absorp 


cS 

a 


1 


Limestones. 














1 


Marquette, 












Gov. test 


1 


Mich. 


Bed 


8,000 


2.34 


146.0 


1-23 


Rock 
Isl. 




Canton, Mo. 


a 


8,000 


2.34 


146.0 


1-22 






Billingsville, 
















Mo. 


«« 


7,000 


2.32 


145.0 


1-23 






Big Sturgeon 
















Bay, Wis. 


" | IS 


2.76 


173.0 


1-400 






Caen, France. 


" 


3,500 


1.9 


118.8 


1-19 






Marbles. 
















Dorset, Vt. 


Edge 


8,670 


2.68 


167.8 








Sutherland 












Test by 




Falls, Vt. 


" 


11,280 




180.0 




F.E. 

Kidder 




West Chester 
















Co., N. Y. 


Bed 


12,950 


2.87 


179.0 








Montgomery 
















Co., Pa. 


u 


8,950 












Quincy, 111. 


" 


9,687 


2.57 


160.0 


1-180 






North Bay, 
















Wis. 


(« 


20,000 


2.80 


175.0 








North Bay, 
















Wis. 


Edge 


13,700 


(C 


ii 








Italian. 


Bed 


8,950 


2.7 


168.7 








Granites. 
















Fox & Dix 
















Isl., Me. 


" 


15,000 


2.63 


165.3 


None 






Hewits' Isl., 
















Me. 


c< 


14,700 


2.63 


164.5 


" 






Hurricane 
















Isl., Me. 


<( 


14",425 


2.67 


166.9 








Hurricane 
















Isl., Me. 


Edge 


14,937 


<( 


« 








Keene, N. H. 


Bed 


12,875 


2.66 


166.6 


1-300 




Dark 


Quincy, Mass. 


«( 


18,250 


2.65 


165.6 


None 




Light 


Quincy, Mass. 
Cape Ann, 

Mass. 
Fall River, 


<< 
(t 


14,750 
19,500 


2.69 


168.1 








Mass. 


<' 


15,937 


2.64 


165.0 


1-216 






Fall River, 
















Mass. 


Edge 


9,250 


K 


<< 


« 






Rockport, 
















Mass. 


« 


19,750 


2.61 


163.0 


1-152 






Rockport, 
















Mass. 


Bed 


16,300 


u 


« 


«( 





238 PROPERTIES OF VARIOUS MATERIALS 







a 

o 


.2 bo O 




2 o 


cm a 
o.2 


M 
u 


Kind. 


Locality. 


*00 

O 


Crush 
stren 
per in 




•is 


.2 a 

e3 O 
c3 


e3 
a> 




Westerly, 
















ft. I. 


Bed 


17,500 


2.65 


165.6 


None 






Millstone 
















Point, Conn. 




17,450 


2.71 


168.7 


« 






Niantic River, 
















Conn. 


Edge 


14,175 


2.66 


166.2 








Mystic River, 
















Conn. 


Bed 


20,000 


2.63 


164.0 








Staten Isl., 
















N. Y. 


« 


22,250 


2.86 


178.8 


None 






Morrisania, 
















N. Y. 




15,800 


2.72 










Pompton, 
















N. J. 




24,000 












Port Deposit, 
















Md. 


Bed 


17,100 


2.72 


170.0 








Port Deposit, 
















Md. 


Edge 


13,100 


(< 


it 








Richmond, 
















Va. 


Bed 


14,000 


2.63 


164.0 


1-348 






Huron Isl., 
















Mich. 


u 


19,400 


2.66 


166.2 


1-630 






Huron Isl., 
















Mich. 


Edge 


14,425 


2.62 


164.0 








Duluth, Minn. 


Bed 


17,500 


2.80 


175.0 


1-711 






St. Cloud, 
















Minn. 


« 


17,250 


2.69 


168.0 


1-239 






Average 39 
















other speci- 












Highest 




mens. 




17,253 


2.67 


166.0 




22,750 




Average 20 
















other speci- 












Lowest 




mens. 




11,700 


it 


172.0 




7,750 



CRUSHING STRENGTH OF STONES AND BRICKS. 



Description of Material. 


Specific 
gravity. 


Tons per 
square inch. 


Granite : — Aberdeen, blue 


2.625 


4.87 


Peterhead 


3.70 


Cornish 

Dublin 


2.662 


2.83 
4.66 






1.52 









PROPERTIES OF VARIOUS MATERIALS. 239 

Crushing Strength of Stones and Bricks. 



DESCRIPTION OF MATERIAL. 



Granite : — Newry 

Mount Sorrel 

Whinstone, Scotch 

Greenstone, Irish 

Sandstones and Grits : — 

Arbroath pavement 

Craigleith freestone 

Derby grit, friable sandstone 

Yorkshire paving. 

Red sandstone, Runcorn 

Quartz rock, Holyhead, across 

lamination 

" parallel to lamination. 

Marble : — Statuary 

Italian, white, veined 

Limestones : — Compact 

Purbeck 

Magnesian 

Anglesea 

Irish 

Chalk 

Slates: — Irish, on bed of strata 

" on edge of strata 

Bricks : — Red 

Yellow-faced, baked 

" burnt 

Gault-clay, pressed 

" wire-cut 

" perforated 

Stock 

Fareham, red 

Staffordshire, blue, pressed 

with frogs 

Staffordshire, blue, rough with- 
out frogs 

Stourbridge fire-clay 



Tividale blue 

Brick-work in cement not hard 

Portland cement, 3 months old 

1 do. to 1 sand " " 

1 do. to 5 sand " " 

Portland cement, 9 months old 

1 do. to lsand " " 

1 do. to 5 sand " " 

Portland cement, concrete blocks — 12 
inch cubes compressed, 12 months old 

1 cement to 1 sand and gravel 



Specific 
gravity. 



2.675 



2.452 
2.316 
2.507 



2.584 
2.599 



2.720 



Tons per 
square inch. 



5.86 
5.74 
3.70 
9.30 

3.52 

2.61 
1.40 
2.55 
0.97 

11.40 

6.25 

1.44 

4.32 

3.44 

4.09 

1.36 ' 

3 38 
5.06 to 7.56 

0.224 
10.60 

6.23 

358 

0.446 

0.643 

1.111 

0.884 

1.180 

1.044 

2.500 

3.100 

3.275 

0.766 

0.670 

0.620 

0.232 

1.70 

1.11 

0.43 

2.67 

2.04 

0.75 
Total crushing 
weight, tons. 
170.5 



240 COMPUTING MEASUREMENTS, ETC, 

Crushing Strength of Stones and Bricks. 



Description of Material. 


Specific 
gravity. 


Total crushing 
weight, tons. 


1 cement to 3 sand and gravel 




115.5 


1 " to 6 " " 




91 


Mortar : — Lime and river sand 




Per square inch. 
194 


" " beaten 




0.266 


Lime and pit sand 




0.258 


" " beaten 




357 


Glass 




12.31 to 14.23 









MISCELLANEOUS RULES FOR COMPUTING MEASURE- 
MENTS, POWER, ETC. 
Some Comparative Linear Measurements. 



Name. 



English mile ..... 

U. S. statute mile 

Roman mile 

Scotch mile (old) 

Irish mile (old) 

German mile (short) 

German mile (long) 

Prussian mile 

Danish mile 

Swedish mile 

English nautical mile 

German nautical mile 

English land league 

French legal post league.... 

Spanish league 

Nautical league (1-20 of a degree or 3 
nautical miles) 



English Feet. English Miles. 



5280 


1.0 


5280 


1.0 


4854 


.9193 


5950.5 


1.127 


6721.5 


1.273 


20576 


3.897 


30376 


5.753 


24710.5 


4.680 


24731.5 


4.684 


35101.5 


6.648 


6087.84 


1.153 


24346.08 


4.611 


15*40 


3.0 


12777.6 


2.42 


21444 


4.061 


18263.52 


3.457875 



The terms geographical and nautical are identical when used in ref- 
erence to miles and leagues. 

Convenient Multipliers.— For the circumference of a circle, mul- 
tiply diameter by 3.146. 

For the diameter of a circle, multiply circumference by 0.31831. 

For the area of a circle, multiply square of diameter by 0.7854. 

For the side of an equal square, 'multiply diameter by 0.8862. 

For the surface of a ball, multiply square of diameter by 3.1416. 

For the cubic inches in a ball, multiply cube of diameter by 0.5236. 

Rule to Compute Power Necessary to Raise a Given 
"Weight with a Lever.— Multiply weight to be raised by its (lis 
tance from fulcrum and divide product uy distance of power from 



ETC. 241 

fulcrum. Example : Weight to be raised 1000 lbs., length of lever 7 
feet, distance of weight from fulcrum 2 feet — hence : 

1000 X 2 = 2000 = 400 
7 — 2 5 

Working- Load for "Wire Rope.— The proper safe working load 
for wire rope is as follows : One-half inch in diameter, 1000 lbs. ; five- 
eighths inch, 1500 lbs. ; three fourths inch, 3500 lbs. ; one inch, 6000 lbs. 
This is for 19 wires to the strand, hemp centres. 

To find out how much Wire it takes to Wrap round a Cylin- 
der in a Spiral. — Multiply the circumference of the base by the num- 
ber of revolutions of the spiral, and to the square of the product add 
the square of the height ; the square root of the same will be the 
length of the spiral. The diameter of the cylinder must be considered 
as extending to the middle of the thickness of the wire. 

To get the Contents of a Turnip-shaped Body. — Multiply the 
length of the short axis by the square of the long one and the product 
by 0.5236. 

To find the Weight of a Cast-iron Ball. — Multiply the cube of 
the diameter in inches by 1365 and the product is the weight in 
pounds. 

To Measure Belting in the Roll. — A simple method of measuring 
belting in the roll, and which is said to be very closely correct, is as 
follows: The sum of the diameter of the outside and inside of the roll 
in inches, multiplied by the number of turns made by the belt, and this 
product multiplied by the decimal .1309, will be the length of the belt 
in feet. 

Simple Mode of Calculating the Height of an Object. — One 
of the simplest means of doing this, and that will give results very 
near the truth — sufficiently so for all practical purposes if carefully 
done — is to compare the length of the shadow cast by the object with 
that of an object whose height is known. Thus, suppose, the object 
whose height is desired to be known is a tree. The only apparatus 
required will be a tape measure, or other means of making a measure- 
ment, and a stick. Force the end of a stick (say 2 or 3 feet long) into 
the earth so that it will stand vertically. Measure carefully the 
length of the stick that projects above the ground; then measure the 
length of its shadow. This will give the necessary ratio for the height 
of the tree. Measure with the same care the length of the shadoAV cast 
by the tree; multiply this by the ratio found, and the quotient will 
give the desired result with a degree of accuracy depending, of course, 
on the care with which the measurements were made. As an example 
let us make the following supposition : Let the stick in question 
have 3 feet projecting above the ground, let its shadow measure 4^ feet. 
The ratio between the height of the stick and the length of the shadow 
is, therefore, 3 divided by 4i = §, which is the factor by which the 
length of the shadow cast by the tree must be multiplied to give the 
height of the tree. 

To Compute the Weight of Pipes per foot. — Subtract the square 
of the internal diameter from the square of the external diameter, both 
in inches, and multiply — 



242 COMPUTING MEASUREMENTS, ETC. 

For cast iron pipe by 2.45 

For wrought iron pipe by 2.64 

For brass tubes by 2.82 

For copper tubes by 3.03 

For lead pipe by 3.86 



TABLE OP WEIGHTS PER FOOT OF WROUGHT-IRON PIPE. 



Inside Weight 

Diameter. Per Foot. 

I inch 24 pounds 

i inch 42 pounds 

finch 56 pounds 

§ inch 85 pounds 

| inch. 1.12 pounds 

1 inch 1.67 pounds 

li inches 2.25 pounds 

l| inches 2.69 pounds 

2 inches 3.66 pounds 

2J inches 5.77 pounds 



Inside Weight 

Diameter. Per Foot. 

3 inches 7.54 pounds 

3£ inches 9.05 pounds 

4 inches 10.72 pounds 

4£ inches 12.49 pounds 

5 inches 14.56 pounds 

6 inches 18.77 pounds 

7 inches 23.41 pounds 

8 inches 28.35 pounds 

9 inches 34.07 pounds 

10 inches 40.64 pounds 



Comparison of the Scales of Fahrenheit's, the Centigrade, 
and Reaumur's Thermometers. — These three thermometers are 
graduated so that the range of temperature, between the freezing and 
boiling points of water, is divided by Fahrenheit's scale into 180 (from 
32° to 212°), by the Centigrade into 100 (from 0° to 100°) and by that 
of Reaumur into 80 (from 0° to 80°) portions or degrees. 

The spaces occupied by a degree of each scale are consequently as 
h I and i respectively, or as 1, 1.8, and 2.25; and the number of de- 
grees denoting the same temperature, by the three scales, when reduced 
to a common point of departure by subtracting 32 from Fahrenheit, 
are as 9, 5 and 4. Hence we derive the following equivalents. 

A degree of Fahrenheit is equal to 0.5 of the Centigrade, or to 0.4 of 
Reaumur's; a degree of the Centigrade is equal to 1.8 of Fahrenheit's 
or to 0.8 of Reaumur's ; and a degree of Reaumur's is equal to 2.25 of 
Fahrenheit's or to 1.25 of the Centigrade. 

To convert degrees of Fahrenheit into the Centigrade or Reaumur's, 
subtract 32 and multiply the remainder by f for the Centigrade, or i 
for Eeaumur's. To convert degrees of the Centigrade or Reaumur's 
into Fahrenheit's multiply the Centigrade by §, or Reaumur's by I, as 
the case may be and add 32 to the product. 

Definition of the "Legal Ohm," and of the Siemens Unit 
of Resistance. — The Paris Congress defined the "legal ohm" as 
"the resistance of a column of mercury 106 centimetres (4.13 inches) 
long and 1 square millimetre (0.001 square inch) in section, at the 
temperature of melting ice." Many physicists consider 106.2 centi- 
metres (4.141 inches) or 106.25 centimetres (4.143 inches) as nearer the 
correct value than that adopted by the Paris Congress. 

The Siemens unit is the resistance of a column of mercury 1 metre 
(3 feet 3.37 inches) long and 1 square metre (10.76 square feet) in sec- 
tion at 0° C. (32° F.). 

"Wind Pressure. — An estimate, by careful measurements made in 
a level country, representing less than the average, gives the following 
results : 



COMPUTING MEASUREMENTS, ETC, 



243 



Velocity in Miles per Hour. 



1 

2 
3 

4 

5 

10 

15 

20 
25 
30 
35 
40 
45 
50 
60 
80 
100 



Pressure in Pounds per Square Foot. 



Round. 


Square. 


Triangular. 


0.003 


0.003 


0.004 


0.014 


0.014 


0.013 


0.030 


0.031 


0.032 


0.054 


0.055 


0.057 


0.085 


0.086 


0.088 


0.339 


0.345 


0.353 


0.763 


0.777 


0.795 


1.356 


1.382 


1.413 


2.119 


2.159 


2.208 


3.052 


3.109 


3.180 


4.154 


4.232 


4.328 


5.425 


5.527 


5.653 


6.866 


6.996 


7.155 


8.476 


8.637 


8.833 


12.208 


12.437 


12.719 


21.701 


22.110 


22.613 


33.908 


34.546 


35.332 



To Estimate Brick-work.— Ordinary bricks are about 8 inches 
in length and with the mortar joint about half that in width, so that 
each brick on the flat will give a horizontal surface of about 32 square 
inches, or 4i bricks will cover a square foot. As ordinarily laid there 
are nine courses to every 24 inches, or 4£ to the foot. Four and a half 
courses, with 4J bricks to the course, will give 20i bricks to the cubic 
foot. Waste, cutting and closer joints will easily require an allowance 
of 21 bricks per cubic foot, which will be found a very convenient 
figure in estimating the number of bricks required for a wall of given 
height and thickness, as it thus becomes not necessary to find the cubic 
contents of the wall, but merely to multiply its face area, or the pro- 
duct of its length and height in feet, by seven-fourths of its thickness 
in inches, which, as the thickness is always some multiple of four 
inches, is a very simple process. 

Plastering-. — Amount oi materials required for 100 square yards 
average " two coat " or " coat and skim work." 

Sand, ordinary work 40 cubic ft. 

Lime, " " with common sand 6 bushels. 

Hair, " " " " " l* " 

Lath, 1£ in. wide, nailed | in. apart 1440 

Nails, 3d fine j ^apif' } 10 lb, 

Nails, 3d finef^j»^f' 1 !2 lb, 

Three Coat Work (good, to grounds). 

Sand, on lath work 45 cubic ft. 

" brick " 55 " " 

Lime, ordinary sand 8 bushels. 

" clean, sharp, coarse sand 10 " 

Hair, best long "Winter" hair 1 to 1± " 

Lath, H in. wide, nailed f ^n. apart 1440 

Nails, 3d m. studding or joists 16 in. apart 10 lbs. 

« « « u u u -jo " " io " 



244 SOLUBILITY OP ANILINE COLOES. 



Capacity of Cylindrical Cisterns. — The following table shows the 
capacity in gallons for each foot in depth of cylindrical cisterns of any 
diameter: 



Diameter. 


Gallons. 


Diameter. 


Gallons 


25 feet 


3,059 


7 feet 


239 


20 " 


1,095 


6i " 


206 


15 " ............ 


1,101 


6 " 

5 " 


176 


14 " 


959 


122 


13 " 


827 


4h " 


99 


12 " 


705 


4 " 


78 


11 " 


592 


3 " 


44 


10 " 


489 


2i " 


30 


9 " 


396 


2 " 


19 


8 " 


313 







Rule for Measuring Cylindrical Cisterns and Wells. — The square of 
diameter in inches, multiplied by depth in inches, and the product 
multiplied by 0.0034, equals contents in gallons. 

TABLE OF SOLUBILITY OP A PEW ANILINE COLORS. 

For the preparation of alcoholic or aqueous solutions of aniline 
colors the following table may prove useful: 



Name. 



Soluble in 


Soluble in 


water. 


alcohol 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Almost | 
insoluble, j 


40 


3 


0.35 


2 


0.5 


4 


1 


2 


1 


0.02 


f Nearly in- 
{ soluble. 


0.3 


10 


1.5 


3 


0.25 


0.6 


0.2 


2.5 


4 


5 


2 


0.15 


3 


1.5 


7 


0.25 


2 


1.5 


0.6 


0.4 


' 0.05 


0.1 


2 


0.2 



Aurin 

Bismarck brown .... 

Coralline ... 

Dahlia blue 

Eosine 

Ethyl orange 

Fuchsine 

Gentian violet....... 

Luteoline 

Magenta red 

Malachite green 

Manchester yellosv. 

Methyl blue 

Methyl green 

Methyl violet 

Safranine 

Tropeoline — 

Vesuvine 



Gas-holders. — The pressure due to the weight of a gas-holder may 
be found by the following rule: Multiplying the area of the gas- 
holder in square feet by 5.21, and with the "product divide the weight 



BOILER INCRUSTATION. 245 

of the gas-holder in lbs., the quotient will be the pressure in inches 
deep of water. 

The weight of the counterbalance weight to make a gas-holder work 
at a given inches of water may be found thus : Rule. — Multiply the 
area of the gas-holder in square feet by 5.21, and by pressure of water 
in inches, and subtract the product from the weight in lbs. of the gas- 
holder. 

The diameter of a gas-holder to hold the maximum quantity of 
cubic feet of gas required for 24 hours may be found thus : Rule.— 
Divide the quantity in cubic feet of gas by the product of the depth of 
the gas-holder by 0.7854, and the square root of the product will be the 
diameter of the gas-holder. 

BOILER INCRUSTATION. 

Great drawbacks arise from the incrustation of boilers, and hence the 
importance of any mode by which it can be prevented. The most 
obvious way is, of course, to use good water; but when one kind of 
water only is available (such as is the case of towns and cities) and 
that kind bad, the next plan open to the users of steam-power is to 
employ a mode of preventing the scale or deposit; and here the diffi- 
culty comes in play how to choose amongst so many plans. 

The acids which cause " pitting," " channeling," " furrowing," 
" grooving," etc., held in solution in the water fed to the boiler and set 
free by heat, are beyond the reach of any mechanical devices, and can 
only be neutralized by a chemical combination, which is known to the 
trade as boiler solvents. 

Lord's Compound. The boiler compound of George W. Lord, of 
Philadelphia, Pa., has a high reputation as a scale preventer, and has 
been used successfully for many years by many representative estab- 
lishments throughout the United States and Canada. It is highly 
recommended for neutralizing the acids in feed waters, and also for the 
prevention and removal of scaly deposits without in any manner in- 
juring the material of the boiler, as testified to over their signatures 
by Messrs. Booth & Garrett, chemists, of Philadelphia, who stand at 
the head of their profession. 

This compound is manufactured dry, in the form of a granulated 
powder, in appearance resembling common brown sugar, and is put up 
in packages of convenient size — half-barrels, barrels and casks — cover- 
ing a wide range in weight of from 25 to 500 lbs., for the convenience 
of small and large consumers. It readily dissolves in water, and can 
therefore be applied in a dry state through the man-hole, or in a liquid 
state by the feed-pump, whichever is most convenient. 

The quantity for an application will depend upon the nature and 
amount of water evaporated, the composition of the scale, the con- 
struction of the boiler, etc., but for general use a half-pound per horse- 
power per month has been found to give satisfactory results. 

When judiciously applied, this compound will never fail to meet the 
most sanguine expectations of the purchaser, but being composed of 
chemicals which are harmless to boiler material, its action may require 
a longer period than would be needed by many of the dangerous and 
worthless compounds made of refuse acids, which, while removing the 
scale, likewise destroy the boiler iron by their corrosive action. 

Lord's compound is probably the only one of its kind that is unan- 
imously endorsed by professional men throughout the length and 



246 BOILER INCRUSTATION. 

breadth of this continent. This unanimous endorsement is probably 
due to the fact that not a single accident has occurred to any boiler in 
which this compound is used, although such boilers are to be found in 
every steam-using locality from Canada to Mexico and from Maine to 
the Pacific slope. No stronger recommendation of its merits can be 
given. 

The following remedies have also been recommended to prevent in- 
crustation : 

1. Potatoes, &th weight of the water ; said to prevent adherence of 
scale. 

2. Salt 12 parts, caustic soda 2£, extract of oak bark &, potash £. 

3. Pieces of oak-wood suspended in boiler and renewed monthly. 

4. Muriate of ammonia about 2 ozs., introduced into the boiler twice 
a week. 

5. A coating of 3 parts of black lead, 18 of tallow, applied hot to 
the inside of the boiler every few weeks. 

6. Molasses fed into the boiler at intervals. 

7. Mahogany or oak sawdust in small quantities. Use this with 
caution, as the tannic acid attacks iron. 

8. Carbonate of soda. 

9. Slippery elm bark. 

10. Chloride of tin. 

11. Spent tanner's bark. 

12. Pulverized soapstone. P. Vigier recommends this as an ex- 
cellent means to prevent the deposition of incrustations, especially 
when carbonates are present. The pulverized soapstone acquires a 
lively motion in boiling fluids and thus prevents mechanically the 
deposition of calcium carbonate in dense masses. By a series of ex- 
periments Vigier has determined that it suffices to add to the respective 
water the tenth part of its residue of evaporation of pulverized soap- 
stone to effectively prevent the formation of incrustation. Suppose a 
boiler requires for daily feeding 220 gallons of water which leave a 
solid residue of 7 ozs., 0.7 oz. of pulverized soapstone would have to be 
daily introduced into the boiler. The separated pulverulent carbonates 
together with the addition of soapstone will have to be removed by a 
periodical discharge of the entire contents of the boiler. 



Part II. 

RARE AND VALUABLE RECEIPTS AND 
TABLES FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 



Yellow Brass, for Turning.— (Common article.)— Copper, 20 
lbs. ; zinc, 10 lbs. ; lead from 1 to 5 oz. Put in the lead last before 
pouring off. 

Red Brass, for Turning.— Copper, 24 lbs.; zinc, 5 lbs., lead, 8 oz. 
Put in the lead last before pouring off. 

Red Brass, free, for Turning.— Copper, 160 lbs.; zinc, 50 lbs.; 
lead, 10 lbs. ; antimony, 14 oz. 

Another Brass, for Turning.— Copper, 32 lbs.; zinc, 10 lbs; 
lead, 1 lb. 

Best Red Brass, for Fine Castings.— Copper, 24 lbs.; zinc, 5 
lbs ; bismuth, 1 oz. Put in the bismuth last before pouring off. 

Bronze Metal.— Copper, 7 lbs.; zinc, 3 lbs.; tin, 2 lbs. 

Bronze Metal.— Copper, 1 lb. ; zinc, 12 lbs. ; tin, 8 lbs. 

Bell Metal, for Large Bells.— Copper, 100 lbs.; tin, from 20 to 
25 lbs. 

Bell Metal, for Small Bells.— Copper, 3 lbs. ; tin, 1 lb. 

Cock Metal.— Copper, 20 lbs. ; lead, 8 lbs. ; litharge, 1 oz. ; anti- 
mony, 3 oz. 

Hardening for Britannia.— (To be mixed separately from the 
other ingredients.)— Copper, 2 lbs.; tin, 1 lb. 

Good Britannia Metal.— Tin, 150 lbs.; copper, 3 lbs. ; antimony, 
10 lbs. 

Britannia Metal, second Quality.— Tin, 140 lbs.; copper, 3 
lbs. ; antimony, 9 lbs. 

Britannia Metal, for Casting.— Tin, 210 lbs.; copper, 4 lbs.: 
antimony, 12 lbs. 

Britannia Metal, for Spinning.— Tin, 100 lbs. ; Britannia har- 
dening, 4 lbs. ; antimony, 4 lbs. 

White Solder, for Raised Britannia "Ware.— Tin, 100 lbs.; 
copper, 3 oz., to make it free; and lead, 3 oz. 

247 



248 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 

Britannia Metal, for Registers.— Tin, 100 lbs.; hardening, 8 
lbs. ; antimony, 8 lbs. 

Best Britannia, for Spouts.— Tin, 140 lbs.; copper 3 lbs.; anti- 
mony, 6 lbs. 

Best Britannia, for Spoons.— Tin, 100 lbs.; hardening, 5 lbs.; 
antimony, 10 lbs. 

Best Britannia, for Handles.— Tin, 140 lbs.; copper, 2 lbs. ; anti- 
mony 5 lbs. 

Best Britannia, for Lamps, Pillars and Spouts.— Tin, 30Q 
lbs. ; copper, 4 lbs. ; antimony, 15 lbs. 

Casting.— Tin, 100 lbs. ; hardening, 5 lbs. ; antimony, 5 lbs. 

Lining Metal, for Boxe3 of Railroad Cars.— Mix tin, 24 lbs.: 
copper, 4 lbs.; antimony, 8 lbs. (for a hardening); then add tin, 72 
lbs. 

Fine Silver Colored Metal.— Tin, 100 lbs.; antimony, 8 lbs.; 
copper, 4 lbs. ; bismuth, 1 lb. 

German Silver, First Quality, for Casting.— Copper, 50 lbs. ; 
zinc, 25 lbs. ; nickel, 25 lbs. 

German Silver, Second Quality, for Casting.— Copper, 50 
lbs.; zinc, 20 lbs.; nickel (best pulverized), 10 lbs. 

German Silver, for Rolling.— Copper, 60 lbs.; zinc, 20 lbs.; 
nickel, 25 lbs. 

German Silver, for Bells and other Castings.— Copper, 60 lbs. ; 
zinc, 20 lbs.; nickel, 20 lbs.; lead, 3 lbs.; iron (that of tin plate being 
best,) 2 lbs. 

Imitation of Silver.— Tin, 3 oz.; copper, 4 lbs. 

Pinchbeck.— Copper, 5 lbs. ; zinc, 1 lb. 

Tombac— Copper, 16 lbs. ; tin, 1 lb. ; zinc, 1 lb. 

Red Tombac— Copper, 10 lbs.; zinc, 1 lb. 

Hard White Metal.— Sheet brass, 32 oz. ; lead, 2 oz. ; tin, 2 oz. ; 
zinc, 1 oz. 

Metal for taking Impressions.— Lead, 3 lbs.; tin, 2 lbs.; bis- 
muth, 5 lbs. 

Spanish Tutania.— Iron or steel, 8 oz.; antimony, 16 oz.; nitre, 
3 oz. Melt and harden 8 oz. tin with 1 oz. of the above compound. 

Rivet Metal. — Copper, 32 oz.; tin, 2 oz.; zinc, 1 oz. 

Rivet Metal, for Hose.— Tin, 64 lbs. ; copper, 1 lb. 

Fusible Alloy.— (Which melts in boiling water).— Bismuth, 8 
oz.; tin, 3 oz.; lead, 5 oz. 

Fusible Alloy, for Silvering Glass.— Tin, 6oz., lead, 10 oz.-, 
bismuth, 21 oz.; mercury, a small quantity. 

Best Soft Solder for Cast Britannia Ware.— Tin, 8 lbs.; 
lead, 5 lbs. 

Yellow Solder, for Brass or Copper. — Copper, 32 lbs. ; zinc, 
29 lbs. ; tin, 1 lb. 

Brass Solder.— 1. Copper, 61.25 parts; zinc, 38.75 parts; 2. (Yel- 
low and easily fusible) copper, 45 parts; zinc, 55 parts; 3. (White) 
copper, 57.41 parts, tin, 14.60 parts; zinc, 27.99 parts. 



RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 249 

Solder, for Copper, — Copper, 10 lbs.; zinc, 9 lbs. 
Black Solder. — Copper, 2 lbs. ; zinc, 3 lbs. ; tin, 2 oz. 
Black Solder.— Sheet brass, 20 lbs. ; tin, 6 lbs. ; zinc, 1 lb. 
Soft Solder.— Tin, 15 lbs. ; lead, 15 lbs. 

Pewterer's Soft Solders.— 1. Bismuth, 2; lead, 4; tin, 3. 2. 
Bismuth, 1; lead, 1; tin, 2. 

Plumber's Solde*. — Lead, 3 parts; tin, 1 part. 

Solder. — For lead, the solder is one part tin, 1 to 2 of lead; for 
tin, 1 to 2 parts tin to 1 of lead; for zinc, 1 part tin to 1 to 2 of lead; 
for pewter, 1 part tin to 1 of lead, and 1 to 2 parts of bismuth. 

The surfaces to be joined are made perfectly clean and smooth, 
and then covered with sal ammoniac, or resin, or both; the solder is 
then applied, being melted in, and smoothed over by the soldering 
iron. 

Coppersmith's Cement, &c. — Bullock's blood thickened with 
finely-powdered lime. Use as soon as mixed, as it rapidly gets 
hard. Coppersmith's solder.— Tin 2 parts, lead 1 part. When 
the copper is thick, heat it by a naked fire; if thin, use a tinned cop- 
per tool. Use muriate or chloride of zinc, or resin, as a flux. The 
same solder will do for iron, cast iron, or steel; if thick, heat by 
a naked fire, or immerse in the solder. 

Solder for Gold.— Gold, 6 dwts. ; silver, 1 dwt. ; copper, 2 dwts. 

Soft Gold Solder.— Gold, 4 parts; silver. 1 part; copper, 1 
part. 

Solder for Silver.— (For the use of jewellers.)— Fine silver, 19 
dwts.; copper, 1 dwt., sheet brass, 10 dwts. 

i White Solder, for Silver. — Silver, 1 oz. ; tin, 1 oz. 

Silver Solder, for Plated Metal.— Fine silver, 1 oz.; brass, 
10 dwts. 

Solders.— For Steel Joints. Silver, 19 parts; copper, 1 part; 
brass, 2 parts; melt altogether. 

Hard Solder.— Copper, 2 parts; zinc, 1 part; melt together. 

For Gold. — 1. Silver, 7 parts; copper, 1 part, with borax. 2. 
Gold, 2 parts; silver, 1 part; copper, 1 part. 3. Gold, 3 parts; silver, 

3 parts; copper, 1 part; zinc, y 2 part. 

For Silver.— Silver, 2 parts; brass, 1 part, with borax; or, silver, 

4 parts; brass, 3 parts; zinc, 1-16, with borax. 

For Brass. — Copper, 3 parts; zinc, 1 part, with borax. 

For Platina. — Gold, with borax. 

For Iron.— The best solder for iron is good tough brass, with a 
little borax. 

For Copper.— Brass, 6 parts; zinc, 1 part; tin, 1 part; melt all 
together, mix well, and pour out to cool. 

Gold Solders.— 1. Copper, 24.24 parts; silver, 27.57 parts; gold, 
48.19 parts. 2. Enamel solder— Copper, 25 parts; silver, 7.07 
parts; gold, 67.93 parts. 3. Copper, 26.25 parts; zinc, 6.25 parts; 
silver, 31.25 parts; gold, 36.25 parts. 4. Enamel solder— Silver, 
19.57 parts; gold, 80.43 parts. 

18 



250 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 

Solders.— For 22 carat gold— Gold of 22 carats, 1 dwt. ; silver, 

2 gr. ; copper, 1 gr. 

For 18 carat gold— Gold of 18 carats, 1 dwt.; silver, 2 gr.; cop- 
per, 1 gr. 
For cheaper gold— Gold, 1 dwt. ; silver, 10 gr. ; copper, 8 gr. 
Cheaper still— Fine gold, 1 dwt. ; silver, 1 dwt. ; copper, 1 dwt. 

Silver Solders.— 1. (hard.) Copper, 30 parts; zinc, 12.85 parts; 
silver, 57.15 parts. 2. Copper, 23.33 parts; zinc, 10.00 parts; silver, 
66.67 parts. 3, Copper, 26.66 parts; zinc, 10.00 parts; silver, 63.34 
parts. 4. (soft) Copper, 14.75 parts; zinc, 8.20 parts; silver, 77.05 
parts. 5. Copper, 22.34 parts; zinc, 10.48 parts; silver, 67.18 parts. 
6. Tin, 63.00 parts; lead, 37 parts. 

Colored Gold.— 1. Full red gold.— Gold, 5 dwt.; copper, 5 
dwt. 2. Red gold.— Gold, 10 dwt.; silver, 1 dwt.; copper, 4 dwt. 
3. Green gold.— Gold, 5 dwt. ; silver, 21 gr. 4. Gray gold.— Gold, 

3 dwt. 15 gr. ; silver, 1 dwt. 9 gr. 5. Blue gold.— Gold, 5 dwt. ; 
steel filings, 5 dwt. 6. Antique gold, greenish- yellow. — Gold, 
18 dwt. 9 gr. ; silver, 21 gr. ; copper, 18 gr. These all require to be 
submitted to the process of wet-coloring. 7. Factitious gold, 
very bright. — Copper, 16 parts; platina, 7 parts; zinc, 1 part; fused 
together. 

Alloys for Gold. — 1. Red gold.— Copper, 66.67 parts; gold 
33.33 parts. 2. Yellow gold.— Copper ^12. 50 parts; silver, 37.50 
parts; gold, 50 parts. 3 Green gold.— Silver, 25 parts; gold, 75 
parts. 4. Yellow gold. —Silver, 66.67 parts; gold, 33.33, parts; 
5. Gray gold.— Silver, 5.89 parts; gold, 88.23 parts; iron, 5.89 
parts. 6. Dentists' gold.— Silver, 8.34 parts; platinum, 66.67 
parts; gold, 24.29 parts. 7. English gold coin. — Copper, 8.34 
parts; gold, 91.66 parts. 8. American gold coin.— Copper, 10 
parts; gold, 90 parts. French gold coin same as American. 

Alloys for Silver Coin and Plate.— 1. English standard. 
—Copper, 7.50 parts; silver, 92.50 parts. 2. American standard. 
—Copper, 10 parts; silver, 90 parts. French the same. 

Gilding Metal for common jewelry is made by mixing 4 parts 
copper with one of calamine brass. Sometimes 1 lb. copper with 6 
oz. of brass. 

Jeweller's Gold Compositions, Common Gold.— Silver, 1 
part; Spanish copper, 16 parts; gold, 2 parts; mix. Ring gold. — 
Spanish copper, 6 parts; silver, 3 parts; gold, 5 parts; mix. Man- 
helm gold — Copper, 3 parts; zinc, 1 part; melt, and stir well. 
Mosaic gold. — Copper and zinc, equal parts; melt at the lowest 
temperature that will fuse the former, then mix by stirring, and add 
5 per cent, more zinc. Parker's mosaic gold.— Copper, 100 parts; 
zinc 54 parts; mix. For common jewelry.— Copper, 3 parts; 1 of 
old brass, and 4 oz. of tin to every pound of copper. 

Factitious Gold. — Copper, 16 parts; platinum, 7 parts; zinc, 1 
part; fused together. This alloy resembles gold of 16 carats fine, 
or %, and will resist the action of nitric acid, unless very concen- 
trated and boiling. 



RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 251 

Harmstadt's True Imitation of Gold is stated not only to 
resemble gold in color, but also in specific gravity and ductility. 
Platinum, 16 parts; copper, 7 parts; zinc, 1 part; put iu a crucible, 
cover with charcoal powder, and melt into a mass. 

Do. of Silver. — Copper, }£ oz.; brass, 2 oz.; pure silver, 3 oz.; 
bismuth, 2 oz.; saltpetre, 2 oz.; common salt, 1 oz.; arsenic, 1 oz.; 
potasb, 1 oz.; melt in a crucible with powdered charcoal. This 
compound was used by a German chemist for unlawful purposes 
to the amount of thousands, and is so perfect that he was never 
discovered. 

Artificial Gold.— This is a new metallic alloy which is now 
very extensively used in France as a substitute for gold. Pure cop- 
per, 100 parts; zinc, or, preferably, tin, 17 parts; magnesia, 6 parts; 
sal-ammoniac, 3-6 parts; quick-lime, % part; tartar of commerce, 
9 parts; are mixed as follows: The copper is first melted, and the 
magnesia, sal-ammoniac, lime, and tartar are then added, sepa- 
rately, and by degrees, in the form of powder. The whole is now 
briskly stirred for about half an hour, so as to mix thoroughly; and 
then the zinc is added in small grains by throwing it on the surface, 
and stirring till it is entirely fused; the crucible is then covered, 
and the fusion maintained for about thirty-five minutes. The sur- 
face is then skimmed, and the alloy is ready for casting. 

It has a fine grain, is malleable, and takes a splendid polish. It 
does not corrode readily, and, for many purposes, is an excellent 
substitute for gold. When tarnished, its brilliancy can be restored 
by a little acidulated water. If tin be employed instead of zinc, 
the alloy will be more brilliant. It is very much used in France, 
and must ultimately attain equal popularity here. 

New French Patent Alloy for Silver.— Messieurs DeEuolz 

& Fontenay have invented the following alloy, which may be used 
for almost all purposes for which silver is usually employed: Silver, 
20 parts; purified nickel, 28 parts; copper, 52 parts. Melt the cop- 
per and nickel in the granular state, then introduce the silver. The 
flux to be employed is charcoal and borax, both in the state of pow- 
der; and the ingots obtained are to be rendered malleable by an- 
nealing for a considerable time in powdered charcoal. 

Alloys for Gold. — 22 parts gold, 2 parts copper, is 22 carats fine; 
20 parts gold, and 4 parts copper, is 20 carats fine; 18 parts gold, 
and 6 parts copper, is 18 carats fine. 

English Standard for Silver.— Pure silver, 11 oz. 2 dwts.; 
copper, 22 dwts. Melt. 

Silver Imitations.— Copper 1 lb. ; tin, % oz. ; melt. This com- 
position will roll and ring very near to silver. Britannia Metal. 
— Copper, 1 lb.; tin, 1 lb.; regulus of antimony, 2 lbs.; melt to- 
gether, with or without a little bismuth. Genuine German Sil- 
ver. — Iron, 2% parts; nickel, 31% parts; zinc, 25^ parts; copper, 
40% parts; melt. Fine White German Silver"— Iron, 1 part; 
nickel, 10 parts; zinc, 10 parts; copper, 20 parts; melt. Pinch- 



252 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 

beck. — Copper, 5 parts; zinc, 1 part; melt the copper, then add the 
zinc. Jeweller's Metal.— Copper, 30 parts; tin, 7 parts; brass, 
10 parts. Mix. 

French Gold Plate. — 1. Gold, 92 parts; copper, 8 parts. 2. 
Gold, 81 parts; copper, 16 parts. 3. Gold, 75 parts; copper, 25 
parts. 

Bidery.— Copper, 48.48 parts; tin, 6.60 parts; zinc, 33.80 parts; 
lead, 12.12 parts. 

Best Brass for Clocks.— Rose copper, 85 parts; zinc, 14 parts; 
lead, 1 part. 

Alloy for "Watch Pinion Sockets.— Gold, 31 parts; silver, 19 
parts; copper, 39 parts; palladium, 1 part. 

To Reduce Hair-Springs.— Immerse the springs about 2 or 3 
seconds in nitric •acid, 3 drops to one teaspoonfui of water. By this 
means you can reduce them to any extent. It requires very care- 
ful manipulation, experience, and good judgment. 

Albata Metal. — Nickel, 3 to 4 parts; copper, 20 parts; zinc, 16 
parts. Used for plated goods. 

British Plate.— Michel, 5 to 6 parts; copper, 20 parts; zinc, 8 to 
10 parts. Used for plated goods. 

Chantry's Hard Alloy.— Copper, 1 lb.; zinc. 2^ oz.; tin, iy 2 
oz. Razors as hard as tempered steel have been made from this 
alloy. 

Hard White Metal for Buttons.— Brass, 1 lb.; zinc, 2 oz.; 
tin, 1 oz. 

Birmingham Platin.— Copper, 8 parts; zinc, 5 parts. 

German Silver. — 1. Copper, 40.62 parts; zinc, 43.76 parts; nickel, 
15.62 parts. 2. Copper, 41.47 parts; zinc, 26.08 parts; nickel, 32.45 
parts. 3. Copper, 55.55 parts; zinc, 5.55 parts; nickel, 38.90 parts. 
4. Copper, 53.40 parts; zinc, 29.10 parts; nickel, 17.50 parts. 5. 
(Alfenidt contains a trace of iron.) Copper, 59.60 parts; zinc, 30.30 
parts; nickel, 10.10 parts. 

Britannia Metal.— 1. Copper, 0.30 parts; tin, 89.70 parts; zinc, 
0.30 parts; antimony, 9.70 parts. 2. Copper, 1.85 parts; tin, 81 64 
parts; antimony, 16.51 parts. 3. Copper, 0.91 parts; tin, 89.97 
parts; antimony, 9.12 parts. 4. Tin, 90.00 parts; antimony, 10 
parts. 5. Copper, 1.78 parts; tin; 89.30 parts; antimony, 7.14 parts; 
bismuth, 1.78 parts. 

Gun Metal.— Copper, 90 parts; tin, 10 parts. 

Melting Point of Metals.— Iron fuses at 2787° Fahr. ; gold at 
2016°; silver, 1873°; copper, 1996°; zinc, 773°; antimony, 809°; bis- 
muth, 476° to 507°; nickel, 630°; tin, 442°; lead, 334°; mercury 
volatilizes at 670°. 

Chinese Gong Metal.— Copper, 78.00 parts; tin, 22.00. 

Alloy for Gun Mountings.— Copper, 80 parts; tin, 3; zinc, 17. 

Bell Metal. — 1. Copper, 60 parts; tin, 40 parts. 2. Copper, 80 
parts; tin, 20 parts. 3. (Thomson' h) Copper, 80 parts; tin, 10.10 
parts; zinc, 5.60 parts; lead, 4.30 parts. 



RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 253 

"White Metal for Table Bells.— Copper 2.06 parts, tin 97.34 
parts, bismuth 0.63 parts. 

Clock Bell Metal.— Copper 75.19 parts, tin 48.81 parts. 

Socket Metal for Locomotive Axle-trees. — 1. Copper 86.03, 
tin 13. 97; 2. (French) Copper 82 parts, tin 10 parts, zinc 8 parts; 3. 
{Stephenson's) Copper 79 parts, tin 8 parts, zinc 5 parts, lead 8 
parts; 4. (Belgian) Copper 89.02 parts, tin 2.44 parts, zinc 7.76 parts 
iron, 0.78 parts; 5. (English) Copper, 73.96 parts, tin, 9.49 parts, 
zinc, 9.03 parts, lead, 7.09 parts, iron, 0.43 parts. 

Brass.— 1. Copper 73 parts, zinc 27 parts; 2. Copper 65 parts, 
zinc 35 parts; 3. Copper 70 parts; zinc 30 parts. 

Alloy for Mechanical Instruments. — Copper 1 lb., tin 1 oz. 

Malleable Brass.— 1. Copper 70.10 parts, zinc 29.90 parts- 2. 
(Superior) Copper 60 parts, zinc 40 parts. 

Button Maker's Metal. — 1. Copper 43 parts, zinc 67 parts; 2. 
Copper 62.22 parts, tin 2.78 parts, zinc 35.00 parts. 

Metal for Sliding Levers of Locomotives.— 1. Copper 85.25 
parts, tin 12.75 parts, zinc 2.00 parts; 2. (Fenton's) Copper 5.50 
parts, tin 14.50 parts, zinc 80 parts. 

Alloy for Cylinders of Locomotives.— Copper 88.63 parts, 
tin 2.38 parts, zinc 6.99 parts. 

Alloy for Stuffing Boxes of Locomotives.— Copper 90.06 
parts, tin 3.56 parts, zinc 6.38 parts. 

Amalgam for Mirrors. — 1. Tin 70 parts, mercury 30 parts; 2, 
(For curved mirrors) tin 80 parts, mercury 20 parts; 3. Tin 8.3J 
parts, lead 8.34 parts, bismuth 8.33 parts, mercury 75 parts; 4. (F&f 
spherical mirrors) Bismuth 80 parts, mercury 26 parts. 

Reflector Metal.— 1. (Duppler's) Zinc 20 parts, silver 80 parts, 
2. Copper 66.22 parts, tin 33.11 parts, arsenic 0.67 parts; 3. (Gooj)- 
er's) Copper 57.86 parts, tin 27.28 parts, zinc 3.30 parts, arsenic 1.65 
parts, platinum 9.91 parts; 4. Copper 64 parts, tin 32.00 parts, arse- 
nic 4.00 parts; 5. Copper 82.18 parts, lead 9.22 parts, antimony 8.60 
parts; 6. (Little's) Copper 69.01 parts, tin 30.82 parts, zinc 2.44 
parts,' arsenic 1.83 parts. 

Metal for Gilt "Wares. — 1. Copper 78,47 parts, tin 2.87 parts, 
zinc 17.23 parts, lead 1.43 parts; 2. Copper 64.43 parts, tin 0.25 
parts, zinc 32.44 parts, lead 2.86 parts; 3. Copper 72.43 parts, tin 
1.87 parts, zinc 22.75 parts, lead 2.96 parts; 4. Copper 70.90 parts, 
tin 2.00 parts, zinc 24.05 parts, lead 3.05 parts. 

Spurious Silver Leaf. — Tin 90.00 parts, zinc 9.91 parts. 

Shot Metal. — 1. Lead 97.07 parts, arsenic 2.93 parts; 2. Lead 
99.60 parts, arsenic 0.40 parts. 

Bismuth Solder.— Tin, 33.33 parts; lead, 33.33 parts, bismuth, 
33.34 parts. 

Alloy for Calico Printing Blocks.— Tin, 50.00 parts, lead, 
33.34: bismuth, 10.66 parts, 



254 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 

Amalgam for Electrical Machines.— 1 . Tin, 25 parts; zinc, 25 
parts; mercury, 50 parts; 2. Tin, 11.11 parts; zinc, 22.22 parts; mer- 
cury, 66.67 parts. 

Type Metal.— 1. (For smallest and most brittle types) Lead, 3; 
antimony, 1; 2. (For small, hard, brittle types) Lead, 4; antimony, 
1; 3. ( For types of medium size) Lead, 5; antimony, 1; 4. (For large 
types) Lead, 6; antimony, 1; 5. (For largest a tid softest types) Lead, 
7; antimony, 1. In addition to lead and antimony, type metal also 
contains 4 to 8 per cent, of tin, and sometimes 1 to 2 per cent, of 
copper. Stereotype plates are made of lead, 20 parts; antimony, 4 
parts; tin, 1 part. 

Brass for Wire.— Copper, 34 parts; calamine, 56 parts; mix. 

Britannia Metal.— 1. Tin, 82 parts; lead, 18 parts; brass, 5 
parts; antimony 5 parts; mix. 2. Brass, 1 part; antimony, 4 parts; 
tin, 20 parts; mix. 3. Plate-brass, tin, bismuth, and antimony, of 
each equal parts. Add this mixture to melted tin until it acquires 
the proper color and hardness. 

Bronze.— 1. Copper, 83 parts; zinc, 11 parts; tin, 4 parts; lead, 
2 parts; mix. 2. Copper, 14 parts; melt, and add zinc, 6 parts; tin, 
4 parts; mix. 

Ancient Bronze.— Copper, 100 parts; lead and tin, each 7 parts; 
mix. 

Alloy for Bronze Ornaments.— Copper, 82 parts; zinc, 18 parts; 
tin, 3 parts: mix. 

Beautiful Red Bronze Powder. — Sulphate of copper, 100 
parts; carbonate of soda, 60 parts; apply heat until they unite into 
a mass; then cool, and add copper-filings, 15 parts. Well mix, and 
keep them at a white heat for 20 minutes; then cool, powder, wash 
and dry. 

Bronzing Fluid for Guns. — Nitric acid, sp. gr. 1.2; nitric 
ether, alcohol, murate of iron, each 1 part; mix, then add sulphate 
of copper, 2 parts, dissolved in water, 10 parts. 

Cannon Metal.— Take tin, 10 parts; copper, 90 parts; melt. 

Statuary Bronze.— 1. Copper, 88 parts; tin, 9 parts; zinc, 2 
parts; lead, 1 part. 2. Copper, 82% parts; tin, 5 parts; zinc, 10% 
parts; lead, 2 parts. 3. Copper, 90 parts; tin, 9 parts; lead, 1 part. 

Bronze for Medals.— Copper, 89 parts; tin, 8 parts; zinc, 3 
parts. 

Bronze for Large Cannon.— Copper, 90; tin, 7. 

Bronze for Small Cannon.— Copper, 93; tin, 7. 

Alloy for Symbals.— Copper, 80; tin, 20. 

Mirrors of Reflecting Telescopes.— Copper, 100; tin, 50. 

"White Argentine.— Copper, 8; nickel, 3; zinc, 35. This beauti- 
ful composition is in imitation of silver. 

Chinese Silver.— Silver, 2.5; copper, 65.24; zinc, 19.52; cobalt of 
iron, 0.12; nickel, 13. 



EECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 255 

Tutenag.— Copper, 8; nickel, 3; zinc, 5. 

Printing Characters.— Lead, 4; antimony, 1. For stereotype 
plates, lead, 25; antimony, 4; tin, 1. 

Fine "White German Silver.— 1. For Castings. Lead, 3 parts; 
nickel, 20 parts; zinc 20 parts; copper, 60 parts; mix. 2. For Moiling. 
Nickel, 5 parts; zinc, 4 parts; copper, 12 parts; mix. 

Imitation Platinum. — Melt together 8 parts brass and 5 of zinc. 
This alloy very closely resembles platinum. 

Imitation Gold. — Platina, 8 parts; silver, 4 parts; copper, 12 
parts; melt all together. 

Imitation Silver. — Block-tin, 100 parts; antimony, 8 parts; bis- 
muth, 1 part; copper, 4 parts; melt all together. 

Tombac, or Red Brass.— Melt together, 8 parts of copper and 1 
part of zinc. 

Parisian Bell Metal.— Copper, 72 parts; tin, 26*4 parts; iron, 
1% parts; used for the bells of small ornamental clocks. 

Bell Metal.— 1. Copper, 25 parts; tin, 5 parts; mix. 2. Copper, 
79 parts; tin, 26 parts; mix. 3. Copper, 78 parts; tin, 22 parts; mix. 

Prince's Metal. — 1. Copper, 3 parts; zinc, 1 part. 2. Brass, 8 
parts; zinc, 1 part. 3. Zinc and copper, equal parts : mix. 

Queen's Metal.— 1. Lead, 1 part; bismuth, 1 part; antimony, 1 
part; tin, 9 parts; mix. 2. Tin, 9 parts; bismuth, 1 part; lead, 2 
parts; antimony, 1 part, mix by melting. 

Brass.— Copper, 3 parts; melt, then add zinc 1 part. 

Button-Maker's Fine Brass.— Brass, 8 parts; zinc 5 parts. 

Button-Maker's Common Brass.— Button-brass, 6 parts; tin, 
1 part; lead, 1 part; mix. 

Fine Brass. — Copper, 2 parts; zinc, 1 part; mix. 

Organ Pipes consist of lead alloyed with about half its quantity 
of tin to harden it. The mottled or crystalline appearance so much 
admired shows an abundance of tin. 

Baron Wetterstedt's Patent Sheathing for ships consists of 
lead, with from 2 to 8 per cent, of antimony; about 3 per cent, is 
the usual quantity. The alloy is rolled into sheets. 

Lead Pipes are cast as hollow cylinders, and drawn out upon 
triblets; they are also cast of any length without drawing. 

Lead Shot are cast by letting the metal run through a narrow 
slit into a species of colander at the top of a lofty tower; the metal 
escapes in drops, which, for the most part, assume the spherical 
form before they reach the tank of water into which they fall at the 
foot of the tower, and this prevents their being bruised. They are 
afterwards riddled or sifted for size, and afterwards churned in a 
barrel with black lead. 

Metal for Anatomical Injections.— Tin, 16.41 parts; lead, 9.27 
parts; bismuth, 27.81 parts; mercury, 46.41 parts. 

Yellow Dipping Metal.— Copper, 32 lbs.; 6 to 7 oz. zinc to 
every lb. of copper. 



256 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 

Quick Bright Dipping Acid, for Brass which has been 
Ormolued. — Sulphuric acid, 1 gal. ; nitric acid, 1 gal. 

Dipping Acid. — Sulphuric acid, 12 lbs. ; nitric acid, 1 pint; nitre, 
4 lbs.; soot, 2 handfuls; brimstone, 2 oz. Pulverize the brimstone, 
and soak it in water an hour. Add the nitric acid last. 

Good Dipping Acid for Cast Brass.— Sulphuric acid, 1 qt.; 
nitre, 1 qt.; water, 1 qt. A little muriatic acid may be added or 
omitted. 

Dipping Acid.— Sulphuric acid, 4 gals.; nitric acid, 2 gals.; 
saturated solution of sulphate of iron (copperas,) 1 pint; solution of 
sulphate of copper, 1 qt. 

Ormolu Dipping Acid, for Sheet Brass. — Sulphuric acid, 2 
gals.; nitric acid, 1 pt. ; muriatic acid, 1 pt.; water, 1 pint.; nitre, 12 
lbs. Put in the muriatic acid last, a little at a time, and stir the 
mixture with a stick. 

Ormolu Dipping Acid, for Sheet or Cast Brass. — Sulphuric 
acid, 1 gal.; sal ammoniac, 1 oz.; sulphur (in flour,) 1 oz.; blue 
vitriol, 1 oz.; saturated solution of zinc in nitric acid, mixed with an 
equal quantity of sulphuric acid, 1 gal. 

To Prepare Brass "Work for Ormolu Dipping.— If the work 
is oily, boil it in lye; and if it is finished work, filed or turned, dip 
it in old acid, and then it is ready to be ormolued; but if it is un- 
finished, and free from oil, pickle- it in strong sulphuric acid, dip 
in pure nitric acid, and then in the old acid, after which it will be 
ready for ormoluing. 

To Repair Old Nitric Acid Ormolu Dips.— If the work after 
dipping appears coarse and spotted, add vitriol till it answers the 
purpose. If the work after dipping appears too smooth, add muri- 
atic acid and nitre till it gives the right appearance. 

The other ormolu dips should be repaired according to the re- 
ceipts, putting in the proper ingredients, to strengthen them. They 
should not be allowed to settle, but should be "stirred often while 
using. 

Tinning Acid, for Brass or Zinc.— Muriatic acid, 1 qt.; zinc, 
6 oz. To a solution of this, add water, 1 qt; sal ammoniac, 2 oz. 

Vinegar Bronze, for Brass.— Vinegar, 10 gals.; blue vitriol, 3 
lbs. ; muriatic acid, 3 lbs. ; corrosive sublimate, 4 grs. ; sal ammoniac, 
2 lbs. ; alum, 8 oz. 

Directions for making Lacquer.— Mix the ingredients, and let 
the vessel containing them stand in the sun, or in a place slightly 
warmed, three or four days, shaking it frequently till the gum is 
dissolved, after which, let'it settle from twenty-four to forty-eight 
hours, when the clear liquor may be poured off for use. Pulverized 
glass is sometimes used, in making lacquer, to carry down the im- 
purities. 

Lacquer, for Dipped Brass.— Alcohol, proof specific gravity 
not less than 95-100ths, 2 gals.; seed lac, 1 lb.; gum copal 1 oz.; 
English saffron, 1 oz.; annotto, 1 oz. 



RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 2<^7 

Lacquer for Bronzed Brass.— To one pint of the aboys 
lacquer, add gamboge, 1 oz.; and, after mixing it, add an equal 
quantity of the first lacquer. 

Deep Gold-Colored Lacquer. — Best alcohol, 40 oz. ; 

Spanish annotto, 8 grs.; turmeric, 2 drs.; shellac, y 2 oz.; red 

sanders, 12 grs.; when dissolved, add spirits of turpentine, 30 
drops. 

Gold-Colored Lacquer, for Brass not Dipped.— Alcohol, 4 
gals.; turmeric, 3 lbs. ; gamboge, 3 oz.; gum sanderach, 7 lbs; shel- 
lac, \y 2 lbs.; turpentine varnish, 1 pint. 

Gold-Colored Lacquer, for Dipped Brass. — Alcohol, 36 oz.; 
seed lac, 6oz.; amber, 2 oz.; gum gutta, 2oz.; red sandal wood, 
24 grs. ; dragon's blood, 60 grs.; oriental saffron, 36 grs.; pulverized 
glass, 4 oz. 

Gold Lacquer, for Brass. — Seed lac, 6 oz. ; amber or co- 
pal, 2oz.; best alcohol, 4 gals.; pulverized glass, 4 oz.; dragon's 
blood, 40 grs. ; extract of red sandal wood obtained by water, 30 
grains. 

Lacquer for Dipped Brass.— Alcohol, 12 gals.; seed lac, 8 
lbs. ; turmeric, 1 lb. to a gallon of the above mixture ; Spanish 
saffron, 4 oz. The saffron is to be added for bronze work. 

Good Lacquer. — Alcohol, 8 oz. ; gamboge, 1 oz. ; shellac, 3 oz. ; 
annotto, loz.; solution of 3 oz. of seed lac in 1 pint of alcohol; 
when dissolved, add y 2 oz. Venice turpentine, % oz. dragon's 
blood, will make it dark; keep it in a warm place four or five days. 

To Bronze Iron Castings. — Cleanse thoroughly, and after- 
wards immerse in a solution of sulphate of copper, when the 
castings will acquire a coat of the latter metal. They must be 
then washed in water. 

Antique Bronze Faint. — Sal-ammoniac, 1 oz.; cream tartar, 3 
oz.; common salt, 6 oz. Dissolve in 1 pint hot water, then add 
2 oz. of nitrate of copper dissolved in % pint water, mix well, 
and apply it repeatedly to the article, in a damp situation, with a 
brush 

To Fill Holes in Castings.— A mixture' of putty and black 
lead is good, but a better method is a metal that expands in cool- 
ing : Lead, 9 parts; antimony, 2; and bismuth 1. To be melted 
and poured in. 

Pale Lacquer for Tin Plate.— Best alcohol, 8 oz.; turmeric, 
4 drs.; hay saffron, 2 scs.; dragon blood, 4scs.; red sanders, 1 sc.; 
shellac, 1 oz. ; gum sanderach, 2 drs. ; gum mastic, 2 drs. ; 
Canada balsam, 2 drs. ; when dissolved, add spirits of turpentine, 
80 drops. 

Red Lacquer, for Brass. — Alcohol, 8 gallons; dragon's 
blood, 4 lbs.; Spanish annotto, 12 pounds; gum sanderach, 13 
pounds; turpentine, 1 gallon. 

Pale Lacquer, for Brass.— Alcohol, 2 gals.; Cape aloes, cut 
small, 3 oz.; pale shellac, 1 lb.; gamboge, 1 oz. 



258 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 

Bronze Dip.— Sal-ammoniac, 1 oz. ; salt of sorrel (binoxolate of 
potash), % oz. dissolved in vinegar. 

Parisian Bronze Dip. — Sal-ammoniac, }£ oz. ; common salt, % 
oz.; spirits of hartshorn, 1 oz. dissolved in an English quart of 
vinegar. A good result will be obtained by adding % oz. of sal- 
ammoniac, instead of the spirits of hartshorn. The piece ot 
metal, being well cleaned; is to be rubbed with one of these solu- 
tions, then dried by friction with a flesh brush. 

Best Lacquer for Brass.— Alcohol, 4 gals.; shellac, 2 lbs.; am- 
ber gum, 1 lb.; copal, 20 oz.; seed lac, 3 lbs.; saffron, to color; 
pulverized glass, 8 oz. 

Color for Lacquer.— Alcohol, 1 qt.; annotto, 4 oz. 

Lacquer for Philosophical Instruments. — Alcohol, 80 oz.; 

gum gutta, 3 oz.; gum sandarac, 8 oz.; gum elemi, 8 oz.;' dragon's 
blood, 4 oz.; seed lac, 4 oz.; terra merita, 3 oz.; saffron, 8 grs.; 
pulverized glass, 12 oz. 

Brown Bronze Dip.— Iron scales, 1 lb.; arsenic, 1 oz.; muriatic 
acid, 1 lb.; zinc (solid), 1 oz. Let the zinc be kept in only while 
it is in use. 

Green Bronze Dip.— Wine vinegar, 2 qts. ; verditer green, 2 
oz.; sal ammoniac, 1 oz.; salt, 2oz.; alum, % oz. French berries, 
8 oz. ; boil the ingredients together. 

Aqua-fortis Bronze Dip.— Nitric acid, 8 oz.; muriatic acid, 1 
qt.; sal-ammoniac, 2 oz.; alum, 1 oz.; salt, 2 oz.; water, 2 gals. 
Add the salt after boiling the other ingredients, and use it hot. 

Olive Bronze Dip, for Brass.— Nitric acid, 3 oz.; muriatic 
acid, 2 oz.; add titanium or palladium; when the metal is dissolved, 
acid 2 gals, pure soft water to each pint of the solution. 

Brown Bronze Paint, for Copper Vessels.— Tincture of 
steel, 4 oz.; spirits of nitre, 4 oz.; essence of dendi, 4 oz.; blue 
vitriol, 1 oz.; water, y 2 pint. Mix in a bottle; apply it with a fine 
brush, the vessel being full of boiling water; varnish after the ap- 
plication of the bronze. 

Bronze for All Kinds of Metal.— Muriate of ammonia (sal- 
ammoniac), 4 drs. ; oxalic acid, 1 dr.; vinegar, 1 pint. Dissolve 
the oxalic acid first; let the work be clean; put on the bronze with 
a brush, repeating the operation as many times as may be neces- 
sary. 

Bronze Paint, for Iron or Brass.— Chrome green, 2 lbs.; 
ivory black, 1 oz.; chrome yellow, 1 oz.; good Japan, 1 gill: grind 
all together, and mix with linseed oil. 

For Tinning Brass.— Water, 2 pails full; cream of tartar, y 2 
lb.; salt, Yz pint. 

Shaved or Grained Tin.— Boil the work in the mixture, keep- 
ing it in motion during the time of boiling. 

Silvering by Heat.— Dissolve 1 oz. of silver in nitric acid; add 
a small quantity of salt; then wash it, and add sal ammoniac, or 6 
oz. of salt and white vitriol; also, \i oz. of corrosive sublimate; 



RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 259 

rub them together till they form a paste; rah the piece which is to 
be silvered with the paste; heat it till the silver runs, after which 
dip it in a weak vitriol pickle to clean it. 

Mixture for Silvering.— Dissolve 2-oz. of silver with 3 grs. of 
corrosive sublimate; add tartaric acid, 4 lbs.; salt, 8 qts. 

Separate Silver from Copper.— Mix Sulphuric acid, 1 part; 
nitric acid, 1 part; water, 1 part; boil the metal in the mixture till 
it is dissolved, and throw in a little salt to cause the silver to 
subside. 

Chinese "White Copper.— Copper, 40.4; nickel, 31.6; zinc, 25.4; 
and iron, 2.6 parts. 

Bath Metal. — Brass, 32; and zinc, 9 parts. 

Speculum Metal.— Copper, 6; tin, 2; and arsenic, 1 part. Or 
copper, 7; zinc, 3; and tin, 4 parts. 

Britannia Metal.— Brass, 4; tin, 4 parts; when fused, add bis- 
muth, 4; and antimony, 4 parts. This composition is added at dis- 
cretion to melted tin. 

Jeweler's Soldering Fluid. — Take alcohol, and add to it all 
the chloride of zinc it will dissolve, and it is ready for use. A good 
soft solder for repairing, — equal quantities of tin, and lead from tea- 
boxes. 

Tinman's Solder.— Lead, 1; tin, 1 part. 

Pewterer's Solder.— Tin, 2; lead, 1 part. 

Common Pewter. — Tin, 4; lead, 1 part. 

Best Pewter.— Tin, 100; antimony, 17 parts. 

Queen's Metal.— Tin, 9; antimony, 1; bismuth, 1; lead. 1 
part. 

Tinning Iron.— Cleanse the metal to be tinned; and rub with a 
coarse, cloth, previously dipped in hydrochloric acid (muriatic acid,) 
and then rub on French putty with the same cloth. French putty 
is made by mixing tin filings with mercury. 

Tinning.— 1. Plates or vessels of brass or copper boiled with a 
solution of stannate of potassa, mixed with turnings of tin, become, 
in the course of a few minutes, covered with a firmly attached 
layer of pure tin. 2. A similar effect is produced by boiling the 
articles with tin-filings and caustic alkali, or cream of tartar. In 
the above way, chemical vessels made of copper or brass may be 
easily and perfectly tinned. 

New Tinning Process.— The articles to be tinned are first cov- 
ered with dilute sulphuric acid, and, when quite clean, are placed 
in warm water, then dipped in a solution of muriatic acid, copper, 
and zinc, and then plunged into a tin bath to which a small quantity 
of zinc has been added. When the tinning is finished, the articles 
are taken out and plunged into boiling water. The operation is 
completed by placing them in a very warm sand-bath. This last 
process softens the iron. 



260 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 

Kustitien's Metal for Tinning.— Malleable iron, 1 lb., heat to 
whiteness; add 5 oz. regulus of antimony, and Molucca tin, 24 
pounds. 

Watchmaker's Brass.— Copper, 1 part; zinc, 2 parts. 

German Brass.— Copper, 1 part; zinc, 1 part. 

Brass for Heavy Castings.— Copper, 6 to 7 parts; tin, 1 part; 
zinc, 1 part. 

Yellow Brass.— (for castings).— 1. Copper, 61.6 parts; zinc, 
35.3 parts; lead, 2.9 parts; tin, 0.2 parts. 2. Brass of Jemappes.— 
Copper, 64.6 parts; zinc, 33.7 parts; lead, 1.4 parts; tin, 0.2 parts. 
3. Sheet Brass of Stolberg near Aix-la-Chapelle.— Copper, 
64.8 parts; zinc, 32.8 parts; lead, 2.0 parts; tin, 0.4 parts. 4. D'Ar- 
cet's Brass for Gilding — Copper, 63.70 parts; zinc, 33.55 parts; 
lead, 0.25 parts; tin, 2.50 parts. 5. Another.— Copper, 64^45 parts; 
zinc, 32.44 parts; lead, 2.86 parts; tin, 0.25 parts. 6. Sheet Brass 
of Bomilly. — Copper, 70.1 parts; zinc, 29.9 parts. 7. English 
Brass Wire.— Copper, 70.29 parts; zinc, 29.26 parts; lead, 0.28 
parts; tin, 0.17 parts. 8. Augsburg Brass Wire.— Copper, 71.89 
parts; zinc, 27.63 parts; tin, 0.85 parts. 

Red Brass for Gilt Articles.— 1. Copper, 82.0 parts; zinc, 18.0 
parts; lead, 1.5 parts; tin, 3.0 parts. 2. Another.— Copper, 82 
parts; zinc, 18 parts; lead, 3 parts; tin, 1 part. 3. Another. — 
Copper, 82.3 parts; zinc, 17.5 parts; tin, 0.2 parts. 4. French 
Tombac for Sword Handles.— Copper, 80 parts; zinc, 17 parts; 
tin, 3 parts. 5. For Parisian Ornaments. — Copper, 85 parts; 
zinc, 15 parts; tin, a trace. 6. Used for German Ornaments.— 
Copper, 85.3 parts; zinc, 14.7 parts. 7. Chrysochalk.— Copper, 
90.0 parts; zinc, 7.9 parts; lead, 1.6 parts. 8. Bed Tombac from 
Paris. — Copper, 92 parts; zinc, 8 parts. 

Compositions.— 1. For Strong Pumps, &c— Copper, 1 lb.; zinc, 
y 2 oz. ; tin, \y 2 c>7.. 2. For Toothed Wheels. — Copper, 1 lb. ; brass, 
2 oz.; tin, 2 oz. 3. Copper, 1 lb.; brass, 2 oz.; tin, 1% oz. 4 For 
Turning Work.— Copper, 1 lb.; brass, \y 2 oz.; tin, 2 oz. 5. For 
Nuts of Coarse Threads and Bearings. — Copper, 1 lb.; brass, 
1% oz., tin, 2% oz. 6. For Bearings to Sustain great 
Weights. — Copper, 1 lb.; zinc, y oz.; tin, 2% oz. 7. Pewterer's 
Temper. — Tin, 2 lb. ; copper, 1 lb. Used to add in small quantities 
to tin. 8. Hard Bearings for MArHiNERY. — Copper, 1 lb.; tin, 
2 oz. 9. Very Hard ditto.— Copper, 1 lb.; tin, 2y 2 oz. 

Babbitt Metal.— Copper, 4 lbs.; regulus of antimony, 8 lbs.; 
Banca tin, 96 lbs. 

Fenton's Anti-Friction Metal.— Grain zinc, iy 2 lbs.; purified 
zince, iy 2 lbs. ; antimony, 1 lb. 

Anti-Friction Alloy for Journal Boxes.— Zinc, 17 parts; cop- 
per, 1 part; antimony, \y 2 parts. This possesses unsurpassable 
anti-friction qualities, and does not require the protection of outer 
casings of a harder metal. 

Babbitt Metal.— Block tin, 8 lbs.; antimony, 2 lbs.; copper, 
1 lb. If the metal be too hard, it may be softened by adding some 
lead. 



RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 261 

Alloy for Journal Boxes. — The best alloy for journal boxes is 
composed of copper, 24 lbs. ; tin, 24 lbs. ; and antimony, 8 lbs. Melt 
the copper first, then add the tin, and lastly the antimony. It 
should be first run into ingots, then melted, and cast in the form 
required for the boxes. 

To Gild Steel. — Pour some of the ethereal solution of gold into 
a wine glass, and dip into it the blade of a new penknife, razor, 
lancet, &c; withdraw the instrument, and allow the ether to evapo- 
rate. The blade will then be found covered with a beautiful coat 
of gold. The blade may be moistened with a clean rag, or a small 
piece of very dry sponge, dipped into the ether; and the "same effects 
will be produced. 

To Weld Cast Iron.— Take of good clear white sand, 3 parts; 
refined solton, 1 part; fosterine, 1 part; rock salt, 1 part: mix all 
together. Take 2 pieces of cast iron, heat them in a moderate char- 
coal fire, occasionally taking them out while heating, and dipping 
them into the composition, until they are of a proper heat to weld ; 
then at once lay them on the anvil, and gently hammer them 
together, and, if done carefully by one who understands welding 
iron, you will have them nicely welded together. One man prefers 
heating the metal, then cooling it in the water of common beans, 
and heat it again for welding. 

To Galvanize Iron. — Cleanse the surface of the iron perfectly 
by the joint action of dilute acid and friction, plunge it into a bath 
of melted zinc covered with sal-ammoniac, and stir it about till it 
be alloyed superficially with this metal. When the metal thus pre- 
pared is exposed to humidity, the zinc oxidizes slowly by a galvanic 
action, and protects the iron within from rust; whereby the outer 
surface remains for a long time perfectly white, in circumstances 
under which iron tinned in the usual way would be corroded with 
rust. 

Muntz Metal for Ships.— Best selected copper, 60 parts; best 
zinc, 40 parts: melt together in the usual manner, and roll into 
sheets of suitable thickness. This composition resists oxidation 
from exposure to sea water, and prevents the adhesion of bar- 
nacles. 

Tempering Saws, &c. — The usual method of tempering saws 
is to heat, and then dip them in oil. This process is slow, costly, 
and laborious. It is also disadvantageous, because the saws become 
warped, and require to be hammered up straight again by hand. 
A late improvement consists in tempering and straightening the 
saws at one operation. This is done by heating the saws to the 
proper degree, and then pressing them with a sudden and powerful 
stroke between two surfaces of cold iron. A drop press is employed 
for the purpose. The mechanism is quite simple and inexpensive. 
Its use effects an important economy in the manufacture of nearly 
all kinds of saws, and also improves their quality. 

Silvering Shells.— Silver leaf and gum water a sufficient quan- 
tity; grind to a proper thickness, and cover the inside of the shells. 



262 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 

For a gold color, grind up gold-leaf with gum water, and apply to 
the inside of the shells. 

Liquid Foil for Silvering Glass Globes, &c. — Lead, 1 

part ; tin, 1 part; bismuth, 1 part: melt, and, just before it sets, 
add mercury, 10 parts. Pour this into ihe globe, and turn it rapidly 
round. 

To Soften Iron or Steel.— Either of the following methods 
Mill make iron or steel as soft as lead: — 1. Anoint it all over with 
tallow, temper it in a gentle charcoal fire, and let it cool of itself. 
2. Take a little clay, cover your iron with it, temper in a charcoal 
fire. 3. When the iron or steel is red hot, strew hellebore on it. 
4. Quench the iron or steel in the juice or water of common beans. 

Tempering.— The article, after being completed, is hardened by 
being heated gradually to a bright reel, and then plunged "into cold 
water: it is then tempered by being warmed gradually and equably, 
either over a fire, or on a piece of heated metal, till of the color cor- 
responding to the purpose for which it is required, as per table 
below; when it is again plunged into water. 

CORRESPONDING TEMPERATURE. 

A very pale straw, - 430 Lancets. 

Straw, 450 Razors. 

Darker Straw - - - 470 Penknives. ) All kinds of wood tools. 

Yellow, 490 Scissors. ) Screw taps. 

Brown yellow, - - - 500 } Hatchets, chipping chisels, 

Slightly tinged purple, 520 > Saws. 

Purple, 530 ) All kinds of percussive tools. 

Dark purple, - - - 550 > s - 

Blue, 570 jbprmgs. 

Dark blue, - - - - 600 Soft for saws. 

Cast Iron Cement.— Clean borings or turnings of cast iron, 
16; sal ammoniac, 2; flour of sulphur, 1 part; mix them well together 
in a mortar; and keep them dry. When required for use, take of 
the mixture, 1; clean borings, 20 parts; mix thoroughly, and add a 
sufficient quantity of water. A little grindstone dust added im- 
proves the cement. 

Cement for Steam Pipe Joints, Etc., "with Faced 
Flanges. — White lead, mixed, 2; red lead, dry, 1 part; grind, or 
otherwise mix them to a consistence of thin putty; apply interposed 
layers with one or two thicknesses of canvas, or gauze wire, as the 
necessity of the case may be. 

Crucibles.— The best crucibles are made from a pure fire clay, 
mixed with finely ground cement of old crucibles, and a portion of 
black lead or graphite: some pounded coke may be mixed with the 
plumbago. The clay should be prepared in a similar way as for 
making pottery ware: the vessels, after being formed, must be 
slowly dried, and then properly baked in the kiln. 

Black Lead Crucibles are made of 2 parts graphite, and 1 of 
fire-clay, mixed with water into a paste, pressed in moulds, and 
well dried, but not baked hard in the kiln. This compound forms 
excellent small or portable furnaces. 






RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 263 

To Purify Gas.— The purifier is to be filled with milk of lime, 
made by mixing 1 part of slacked lime with 25 parts of water. A 
very great improvement in the purification of gas has been effected 
by Mr. Statter, of England, by the employment of hydrated clay 
along with the lime employed for this purpose. Hydrated clay 
unites with the ammonia of the gas as with a base, and, at the same 
time, with its sulphuret of carbon as an acid, and thus removes both 
of these noxious impurities from the gas exposed to its influence. 
It assists also, in conjunction with the lime, in removing tarry vapor 
and other impurities from the gas. The illuminating power of the 
gas is positively increased by the clay purification from 22 to 333^ per 
cent. 

To Joint Lead Plates.— The joints of lead plates for some pur- 
poses are made as follows: The edges are brought together, ham- 
mered down into a sort of channel cut out of wood, and secured with 
a few tacks. The hollow is then scraped clean with a scraper, rub- 
bed over with candle grease, and a stream of hot lead is poured into 
it, the surface being afterwards smoothed with a red hot plumber's 
iron. 

To Joint Lead Pipes.— Widen out the end of one pipe with a 
taper wood drift, and scrape it clean inside; scrape the ead of the 
other pipe outside a little tapered, and insert it in the former, then 
solder it with common lead solder as before described; or, if it re- 
quires to be strong, rub a little tallow over, and cover the joint with 
a ball of melted lead, holding a cloth (2 or 3 plies of greased bed- 
tick) on the under side; and smoothing over with it and the 
plumber's iron. 

Composition used in Welding Cast Steel. — Borax, 10; 
sal ammoniac, 1 part; grind or pound them roughly together; then 
fuse them in a metal pot over a clear fire, taking care to continue 
the heat until all spume has disappeared from the surface. When 
the liquid appears clear, the composition is ready to be poured out 
to cool and concrete; afterwards being ground to a fine powder it is 
ready for use. To use this composition, the steel to be welded is 
raised to a heat which may be expressed by "bright yellow;" it is 
then dipped among the welding powder, and again placed in the fire 
until it attains the same degree of heat as before; it is then ready to 
be placed under the hammer. 

To prevent Deposits of Lime in Boilers. — Throw into the 
tank or reservoir from which your boiler is fed, a quantity of rough 
bark, in the piece, such as tanners use, sufficient to turn the water 
of a brown color; if you have no tank, put into the boiler from a 
half to a bushel of ground bark when you blow off; repeat every 
month, using only half the quantity after the first time. 

Scaling Cast Iron.— Vitriol, 1 part; water, 2 parts; mix and lay 
on the diluted vitriol with some old cloth in the form of a brush, 
enough to wet the surface well; after 8 or 10 hours, wash off with 
water, when the hard, scaly surface will be completely removed. 



264 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 

Varnish, for Smooth Moulding Patterns.— Alcohol, 1 gallon; 
shellac, 1 lb. ; lamp or ivory black, sufficient to color it. 

Cast Iron Ornaments are rendered susceptible of being finished 
with a scraper, where they cannot be reached with files, after having 
the above liquid applied to them. 

Iron Lustre is obtained by dissolving a piece of zinc with muriatic 
acid, and mixing the solution with spirit of tar, and applying it to 
the surface of iron. 

To Melt Steel as Easily as Lead. — This apparent impossi- . 
bility is easily performed by heating the bar of iron or steel red hot, I 
and then touching it with a roll of brimstone, when the metal will r 
drop like water. 

Patent Lubricating Oil. — Water, 1 gal.; clean tallow, 3 lbs.; \ 
palm oil, 10 lbs.; common soda, y 2 lb. Heat the mixture to about 
210° F.; stir well till it cools down to 70° F., when it is fit for use. ' 

Black Having a Polish for Iron - — Pulverized gum asphal- 
tum, 2 lbs. ; gum benzoin, \i lb. ; spirits of turpentine, 1 gal. ; to make 
quick, keep in a warm place, and shake often; shade to suit with 
finely ground ivory black. Apply with a brush. And it ought to 
be used on iron exposed to the weather as well as on inside work, 
desiring a nice appearance or polish. Or: 

Varnish for Iron.— Asphaltum, 8 lbs. ; melt in an iron kettle, 
slowly adding boiled linseed oil, 5 gals.; litharge, 1 lb., and sulphate 
of zinc, % lb.; continuing to boil for 3 hours; then add dark gum 
amber, \y 2 lbs.; and continue to boil 2 hours longer. When cool, 
reduce to a proper consistence to apply with a brush, with spirits of 
turpentine. 

To Restore Burnt Steel, and improv3 Poor Steel.— Borax, 3 
oz. ; sal ammoniac, 8 oz.; prussiate of potash, 3 oz.; blue clay, 2 oz.; 
resin, 1% lbs.; water, 1 gill; alcohol, 1 gill. Put all on the fire, and 
simmer till it dries to a powder. The steel is to be heated, and dipped 
into this powder, and afterwards hammered. 

Composition to toughen Steel.— Resin, 2 lbs.; tallow, 2 lbs.; 
black pitch, 1 lb.; melt together, and dip in the steel when hot. 

Burglar and Drill Proof Diamond Chill.— Take 1 gal. urine, 
and add to it 1 oz. borax and 1 oz. salt. 

How to Re-cut Old Files and Rasps.— Dissolve 4 oz. of 
saleratus in 1 qt. of water, and boil the files in it for half an hour; 
then remove, wash and dry them. Now have ready, in a glass or 
stone- ware vessel, 1 qt. of rain water, into which you have slowly 
added 4 oz. of best sulphuric acid, and keep the proportions for any 
amount used. Immerse the files in this preparation for from six to 
twelve hours, according to fineness or coarseness of the file; then 
remove; wash them clean, dry quickly, and put a little sweet oil on 
them to cover the surface. If the files are coarse, they will need to 
remain in about twelve hours, but for fine files six to eight hours is 
sufficient. This plan is applicable to blacksmiths', gunsmiths', tin- 



RECEIPTS FOK MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 265 

ners', eoppersmiths', and machinists' files. Copper and tin workers 
will only require a short time to take the articles out of their files, 
as the soft metals with which they become filled are soon dissolved. 
Blacksmiths' and saw-mill files require full time. Files may be re- 
cut three times by this process. The liquid may be used at different 
times if required. Keep away from children, as it is poisonous. 

Substitute for Borax. — Copperas, 2 oz.; saltpetre, loz.; com- 
mon salt, 6 oz. ; black oxide of manganese, 1 oz. ; prussiate of pot- 
ash, 1 oz.; all pulverized and mixed with 3 lbs. nice welding sand, 
and use the same as you would sand. High-tempered steel can be 
welded with this at a lower heat than is required for borax. 

/ Tempering Liquid. — To 6 qts. soft water put in corrosive subli- \ 
mate, 1 oz. ; common salt, 2 handfuls; when dissolved, it is ready for 
use. The first gives toughness to the steel, while the latter gives 
the hardness. Be careful with this preparation, as it is a dangerous 
poison. 

Another.— Salt, % tea-cup; saltpetre, % oz., alum, pulverized, 
1 teaspoon; soft water, 1 gallon; never heat over a cherry red, nor 
draw any temper. 

Another.— Saltpetre, sal-ammoniac and alum, of each 2oz.; salt, 
V/ 2 lbs. ; water, 3 gallons, and draw no temper 

Another.— Saltpetre and alum each, 2 oz.; sal-ammoniac, y 2 oz.; 
salt, 1% lbs. ; soft water, 2 gallons. Heat to a cherry red, and plunge 
in, drawing no temper. 

Another.— Water, 3 gallons; salt, 2 qts.; sal-ammoniac and salt- 
petre, of each 2 oz.; ashes from white-ash bark, 1 shovel, which 
causes the steel to scale white and smooth as silver. Do not ham- 
mer too cold, to avoid flaws; do not heat too high, which opens the 
pores of the steel; and do not heat more than one or two inches of 
the steel at a time while tempering, if you wish the hardness and 
toughness of the steel to be of the first quality. 

To Improve Poor Iron.— Black oxide of manganese, 1 part; 
copperas and common salt, 4 parts each; dissolve in soft water, and 
boil till dry; when cool, pulverize and mix quite freely with nice 
welding sand. When you have poor iron which you cannot afford 
to throw away, heat it, and roll it in this mixture; working for a 
time, reheating, &c. , will soon free it from all impurities, which is 
the cause of its rottenness. By this process you can make good 
horse-nails out of common iron. 

Case Hardening for Iron.— Case iron may be case-hardened by 
heating to a red heat, and then rolling it in a composition composed 
of equal parts of prussiate of potash, sal-ammoniac, and saltpetre, 
all pulverized and thoroughly mixed. This must ,be got to every 
part of the surface; then plunged, while yet hot, into a bath con- 
taining 2 oz. prussiate of potash, and 4 oz. sal-ammoniac to each 
gallon of cold water. 

For Malleable Iron.— Put the articles in an iron box, and 
stratify them among animal carbon, that is, pieces of horns, hoofs, 
19 



266 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 

skins or leather, just sufficiently burned to be reduced to powder. 
Lute the box with equal parts of sand and clay; then place it in the 
fire, and keep at a light red heat for a length of time proportioned 
to the depth of steel required, when the contents of the box are 
emptied into water. 

Another for Wrought Iron.— Take the prussiate of potash, 
finely pulverized, and roll the article in it, if its shape admits of it; 
if not, sprinkle the powder upon it freely while the iron is hot. 

/ To Soften Cast Iron for Drilling.— Heat to a cherry red, having } 

( it lie level in the fire; then with a pair of cold tongs put on a piece \ 

of brimstone, a little less in size than the hole to be when drilled, and 

it softens entirely through the piece; let it lie in the fire until a little 

cool, when it is ready for drilling. 

/ To Temper Springs.— For tempering cast-steel trap springs, all ] 
/ that is necessary is to heat them in the dark, just so that you can j 
see that they are red; then cool them in luke-warm water. You / 
can observe a much lower degree of heat in the dark than by day- 
light, and the low heat and warm water give the desired temper. 

rTo Mend Broken Saws.— Pure silver, 19 parts; pure copper, l\ 
part; pure brass, 2 parts; all to be filed into powder, and thoroughly I 
mixed; place the saw level on the anvil, broken edges in contact, * 
and hold them so; now put a small line of the mixture along the | 
seam, covering it with a larger bulk of powdered charcoal; now I 
v with a spirit lamp and a jeweller's blow-pipe, hold the coal dust in 
place, and blow sufficient to melt the solder mixture; then with a 
hammer set the joint smooth, and file away any superfluous solder, 
and you will be surprised at its strength; the heat will not injure 
the temper of the saw. 






Writing Inscriptions on Metals.— Take % lb. nitric acid and 
1 oz. muriatic acid. Mix, shake well together, and it is ready for > 
use. Cover the place you wish to mark with melted bees- wax; j 
when cold, write your inscription plainly in the wax clear to the 
metal with a sharp instrument; then apply the mixed acids with a 
feather, carefully filling each letter. Let it remain from one to ten 
minutes, according to appearance desired; then throw on water, 
which stops the process, and remove the wax. 

Black Varnish for Iron Work.— Asphaltum, 1 lb. ; lampblack, 
^"lb.; resin, y 2 lb.; spirits turpentine, 1 qt.; linseed oil, just suffi- 
cient to rub up the lampblack with before mixing it with the others. 
Apply with a camel's hair brush. 

To Petrify Wood.— Gem salt, rock alum, white vinegar, chalk \ 
and peebles powder, of each an equal quantity. Mix well together. \ 
If, after the ebullition is over, you throw into this liquid any wood 
or porous substance, it will petrify it. 

The Finest Bronze.— Put in a clean crucible 7 lbs. copper, melt, 
then add 3 lbs. zinc, afterwards 2 lbs. tin. In order to gild polished 
steel or polished iron, dip the article into an ethereal solution of 



RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 267 

gold, withdraw from the solution, and the ether flies off and leaves 
the gold deposited. 

Soft Cement, for Steam Boilers, Steam Pipes, &c.— Ked or 

white lead, in oil, 4; iron borings, 2 to 3 parts. 

Hard Cement.— Iron borings and salt water, and a small quan- 
tity of sal ammoniac with fresh water. 

Black Varnish, for Coal Buckets.— Aspbaltum, 1 lb.; lamp- 
black, % lb.: resin, % lb.: spirits of turpentine, 1 qt. Dissolve the 
asphaltum and resin in the turpentine; then rub the lampblack with 
linseed oil, only sufficient to form a paste, and mix with the others. 
Apply with a brush. 

Soldering Fluid.— Take 2 oz. muriatic acid; add zinc till bub- 
bles cease to rise; add y teaspoonful of sal ammoniac and 2 oz. of 
water. Damp the part you wish to solder with this fluid; lay on a 
small piece of solder, and with a piece of hot iron or soldering iron 
solder the part. 

Japan Flow for Tin. — All Colors. — Gum sandarac, 1 lb.; 
balsam of fir, balsam of Tolu, and acetate of lead, of each, 2 oz.; 
linseed oil, % pint; spirits of turpentine, 2 qts. Put all into a 
suitable kettle, except the turpentine, over a slow fire, at first; 
then raise to a higher heat till all are metled; now take from the 
fire, and, when a little cool, stir in the spirits of turpentine, and 
strain through a fine cloth. This is transparent; but by the fol- 
lowing modifications any or all the various colors are made from 
it. 

2. Black.— Prussian blue, 1 oz.; asphaltum, 2 oz.; spirits of tur- 
pentine, y 2 pint. Melt the asphaltum in the turpentine; rub up the 
blue with a little of it; mix well, and strain; then add the whole to 
1 pint of the first, above. 

3. Blue. — Indigo, and Prussian blue, both finely pulverized, of 
each y oz.; spirits of turpentine, 1 pint. Mix well, and strain. 
Add of this to one pint of the first until the color suits. 

4. Ked. — Take spirits of turpentine, % pt. ; add cochineal, y oz. ; 
let stand 15 hours, and strain. Add of this to the first to suit the 
fancy. If carmine is used instead of cochineal, it will make a fine 
color for watch hands. 

5. Yellow.— Take 1 oz. of pulverized root of curcuma, and stir 
of it into 1 pt. of the first until the color pleases you; let stand a few 
hours, and strain. 

6. Green. — Mix equal parts of the blue and yellow together, then 
mix with the first until it suits the fancy. 

7. Orange. — Mix a little of the red with more of the yellow, and 
then with the first as heretofore, until pleased. 

8. Pink.— Mix a little of the blue to more in quantity of the red t 
and then with the first until suited. Apply with a brush. 

Transparent Blue for Iron or Steel.— Demar varnish, y gal.; 
fine ground Prussian blue, y. oz. ; mix thoroughly. Makes a splen- 
did appearance. Excellent for blueing watch hands. 



268 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 

To Tin Copper Stew Dishes, etc.— Wash the surface of the 
article to be tinned with sulphuric acid, and rub the surface well, 
so as to have it smooth and free of blackness caused by the acid; 
then sprinkle calcined and finely pulverized sal-ammoniac upon the 
surface, holding it over a fire, when it will be sufficiently hot to 
melt a bar of solder which is to be rubbed over the surface: any 
copper dish or vessel may be tinned in this way. 

To Copper the Surface of Iron, Steel, or Iron Wire.— 

Have the article perfectly clean, then wash with the following solu- 
tion, and it presents at once a coppered surface. Kain water, 3 lbs. ; 
sulphate of copper, 1 lb. 

To Tin Iron for Soldering, &c— Take any quantity of mu- 
riatic acid, and dissolve all the zinc in it that it will cut; dilute 
it with one-fourth as much soft water as of acid, and it is ready for 
use. Rub this liquid on iron; and no matter how rusty it may 
be, it will brighten it up so that solder will readily adhere to it; or 
the above copper solution may be applied, giving it a coat of cop- 
per. 

Gold Lacquer for Tin.— Transparent, All Colors.— Alco- 
hol in a flask, y 2 pt. ; add gum shellac, 1 oz.; turmeric, >£ oz.; red 
sanders, % oz. Set the flask in a warm place, shake frequently for 
12 hours or more, then strain off the liquor, rinse the bottle, and 
return it, corking tightly for use. 

When this varnish is used, it must be applied to the work freely 
and flowing; and the article must be hot when applied. One or 
more coats may be laid on, as the color is required more or less 
light or deep. If any of it should become thick from evaporation, 
at any time, thin it with alcohol. And by the following modifica- 
tions, all the various colors are obtained. 

2. Rose Color.— Proceed as above, substituting % oz. of finely 
ground best lake in place of the turmeric. 

3. Bltje.— The blue is made by substituting pulverized Prussian 
blue, y?. oz., in place of the turmeric. 

4. Purple.— Add a little of the blue to the first. 

5. Green. — Add a little of the rose-color to the first. 

Crystallized Tin Plate.— The figures are more or less beau- 
tiful and diversified, according to the degree of heat, and rela- 
tive dilution of the acid. Place the tin-plate, slightly heated, over 
a tub of water, and rub its surface with a sponge dipped in a liquor 
composed of four parts of aquafortis, and two of distilled water, 
holding one part of common salt or sal ammoniac in solution. 
Whenever the crystalline spangles seem to be thoroughly brought 
out, the plate must be immersed in water, 'washed either with a 
feather or a little cotton (taking caro not to rub off the film of tin 
that forms the feathering), forthwith dried with a low heat, and 
coated with a lacker varnish, otherwise it loses its lustre in the air. 
If the whole surface is not plunged at once in cold water, but if it 
be partially cooled by sprinkling water on it, the crystallization 
Will be finely variegated with large and small figures. Similar 



RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 269 

results will be obtained by blowing cold air through a pipe on the 
tinned surface, while it is just passing from the fused to the solid 
state. 

To Crystallize Tin.— Sulphuric acid, 4 oz. ; soft water, 2 to 3 
oz., according to strength of the acid; salt, 1\£ oz; mix; heat the 
tin hot over a stove, then with a sponge apply the mixture, then 
wash off directly with clean water. Dry the tin, and varnish with 
demar varnish. 

Improved Tinning Flux.— Muriatic acid, 1 lb. ; put into it all 
the zinc it will dissolve and 1 oz. sal ammoniac, and it is ready for 
use. 

To Clean and Polish Brass.— Oil of vitriol, 1 oz.; sweet oil, 
K gill; pulverized rotten stone, 1 gill; rain water, \y 2 pints; mix 
all, and shake as used. Apply with a rag, and polish with buck- 
skin or old woolen. 

Silvering Powder. — "Nitrate of silver and common salt, of 
each, 30 grs; cream of tartar, 3% drs. Pulverize finely, mix thor- 
oughly, and bottle for use. Unequalled for polishing' copper and 
plated goods. 

Tin Cans.— Size of Sheet, for from 1 to 100 Gallons: 
For 1 gallon, 7 by 20 inches. For 25 gallons, 30 by 50 inches. 



3y 2 << 


10 by 28 


" 


40 


' 36 by 63 


5 


12 by 40 


it 


50 


1 40 by 70 


6 " 


14 by 40 


it 


75 


' 40 by 84 



.5 


20 by 42 
30 by 42 


it 
tt 


100 


• 40 by 98 



This includes all the laps, seams, &c, which will be found suffi- 
ciently correct for all practical purposes. 

To Mend Tinware. — Take a vial two-thirds full of muriatic 
acid, put into it all the chippings of sheet zinc it will dissolve, then 
put in a crumb of sal ammoniac, and fill up with water. Wet the 
place to be mended with this liquid, put a piece of zinc over the 
hole, and apply a spirit lamp or candle below it, which melts the 
solder on the tin and. causes the zinc to adhere. 

Brunswick Black for Grates, &c— Asphaltum, 5 lbs.; melt, 
and add boiled oil, 2 lbs. ; spirits of turpentine, 1 gal. Mix. 

Gas Fitter's Cement. — Mix together rosin, four and a half 
parts; wax, 1 part; and Venetian red, 3 parts. 

Plumber's Cement.— Black resin, 1 part; brick dust, 2 parts; 
well incorporated by a melting heat. Boiled linseed oil and red 
lead mixed together into a putty are often used by coppersmiths 
and engineers to secure joints; the washers of leather or cloth are 
smeared with this mixture in a pasty state. 

Browning for Gun Barrels. — Spirits of nitre, 1 lb.; alcohol, 1 
lb.; corrosive sublimate, 1 oz.; mix in a bottle, and cork for use. 
Directions: Polish the barrel perfect; then rub it with quick-lime 
with a cloth, which removes grease and dirt; now apply the brown- 
ing fluid with a clean white cloth; apply one coat, and set it in a 
warm dark place for from 10 to 20 hours until a red rust forms on 



270 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 

it; then cord it down with a gunmaker's cord, and rub off with a 
clean cloth. Repeat the process if you wish a dark shade. 

Browning for Twist Barrels.— Spirits of nitre, % oz. ; tinc- 
ture of steel, % oz. ; or use the unmedicated tincture of iron if the 
tincture of steel cannot be obtained; black brimstone, 3^ oz.; blue 
vitriol, y 2 oz.; corrosive sublimate, ^ oz.; nitric acid, 1 drachm; 
copperas, \i oz.; mix with V-A pints rain water, and bottle for use. 
This is to be applied the same as the first. It causes the twist of 
the barrel to be visible after application, a quality which the other 
liquid does not possess. 

Browning Compositions for Gun Barrels.— 1. Blue vitriol, 
4 oz.; tincture of muriate of iron, 2 oz.; water, 1 quart; dissolve, 
and add aquafortis and sweet spirits of nitre, of each, 1- oz. 2. 
Blue vitriol and sweet spirits of nitre, of each, 1 oz.; aquafortis, >£ 
oz. ; water, 1 pint. To be used in the same manner as previously 
described in this work. 

Varnish and Polish for Gun Stocks.— Gaim shellac, 10 oz.; 
gum sandarac, 1 oz.; Venice turpentine, 1 drachm; 98 per cent, 
alcohol, 1 gallon; shake the jug occasionally for a day or two, and 
it is ready for use. Apply a few coats of this to your gunstocks, 
polish by rubbing smooth, and your work is complete. 

Hardening and Filling for Fire-proof Safes.— Experience 
has shown that the fire and burglar proof diamond chill for 
iron or steel, described in another part of this work, has no supe- 
rior as a hardening for security in the construction of safes; and, 
as a non-conductor of heat, we would recommend a filling of plas- 
ter of Paris or alum. 

Tempering Razors, Cutlery, Saws, &c— Razors and pen- 
knives are too frequently hardened without the removal of the scale 
arising from the forging. This practice, which is never done with 
the best works, cannot be too much deprecated. The blades are heated 
in a coke or charcoal fire, and dipped in the water obliquely. In 
tempering razors, they are laid on their backs upon a clean fire, 
about half a dozen together, and they are removed one at a time, 
when the edges, which are as yet thick, come down to a pale straw 
color. Should the backs accidentally get heated beyond the straw- 
color, the blades are cooled in water, but not otherwise. Pen- 
blades are tempered a dozen or two at a time, on a plate of iron or 
copper, about 12 inches long, 3 or 4 inches wide, and about yi of an 
inch thick. The blades are arranged close together on their backs, 
and lean at an angle against each other. As they come down to 
the temper, they are picked out with small pliers and thrown into 
water, if necessary; other blades are then thrust forward from the 
cooler parts of trie plate to take their place. Axes, adzes, cold 
chisels, and other edge tools, in which the total bulk is considerable 
compared with the part to be hardened, are only partially dipped; 
they are afterwards let down by the heat of the remainder of the 
tool; and, when the color indicative of the temper is attained, they 



RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 271 

are entirely quenched. With the view of removing the loose 
scales, or the oxidation acquired in the fire, some workmen rub the 
objects hastily in dry salt before plunging them in the water, in 
order to give them a cleaner and brighter face. 

Oil, or resinous mixtures of oil, tallow, wax, and resin, are used 
for many thin and elastic objects, such as needles, fishhooks, steel- 
pens and springs, which require a milder degree of hardness than 
is given by water. Gunlock springs are sometimes fried in oil for 
a considerable time over a fire, in an iron tray; the thick parts are 
then sure to be sufficiently reduced, and the thin parts do not be- 
come the more softened from the continuance of the blazing heat. 

Saws and springs are generally hardened in various compositions 
of oil, suet, wax, etc. The saws are heated in long furnaces, and 
then immersed horizontally and edgeways into a long trough con- 
taining the composition. Part of the composition is wiped off the 
saws with a piece of leather, when they are removed from the 
trough, and heated one by one, until the grease inflames. This is 
called " Mazing off." The composition used by a large saw manu- 
facturer is 2 lbs. suet, and yi lb. of beeswax, to every gallon of 
whale oil; these are boiled together, and will serve for thin works 
and most kinds of steel. The addition of black resin, about 1 lb. to 
each gallon, makes it serve for thicker pieces, and for those it re- 
fused to harden before; but resin should be added with judgment, 
or the works will become too hard and brittle. 

Silversmith's Stripping Liquid.— Sulphuric acid, 8 parts; 
nitre, 1 part. Use to re-cover silver on old plated ware. 

To Silver Clock Faces, Etc.— Old silver lace, *f oz.; nitric 
acid, 1 oz. Boil them over a gentle fire for about 5 minutes in an 
earthen pot. After the silver is dissolved, take the mixture off, and 
mix it in a pint of clean water, then pour it into another vessel, free 
from sediment; then add a tablespoonful of common salt, and the 
silver will be precipitated in the form of a white powder or curd; 
pour off the acid, and mix the curd with 2 oz. salt of tartar, and >£ 
oz. whiting, all together, and it is ready for use. To Use. — Clean 
your brass or copper plate with rotten stone and a piece of old hat; 
rub it with salt and water with your hand. Then take a little of 
the composition on your finger, and rub it over your plate, and it 
will firmly adhere and completly silver it. Wash it well with water. 
When dry, rub it with a clean rag, and varnish with this varnish 
for clock-faces: Spirits of wine, 1 pt.; divide into 3 parts, mix 
one part with gum mastic in a bottle by itself; 1 part spirits, and >£ 
oz. sandarac in another bottle; and 1 part spirits, and % oz. of 
whitest gum benjamin, in another bottle; mix and temper to your 
mind. If too thin, some mastic; if too soft, some sandarac or ben- 
jamin. When you use it, warm the silvered plate before the fire, 
and, with a flat camel's hair pencil, stroke it over till no white 
streaks appear, and this will preserve the silvering for many years. 

"Watchmaker's Drills.— Drills of the smallest kind are heated 
in the blue part of the flame of a candle; larger drills are heated 
with the blow-pipe flame, applied very obliquely, and a little below 
the point. When very thin, they may be whisked in the air to 



272 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 

cool them; but they are generally thrust into the tallow of a candle 
or the oil of a lamp. They are tempered either by their own heat, 
or by immersion in the flame below the point of the tool. 



To Reduce Metallic Oxides.— This may be effected by the 
dry and the moist processes; but the deoxidizing agent of the great- 
est value to the metallurgist is coal in its several varieties, and the 
derivative materials yielded by its combustion. When coal is burned 
in a furnace, the first product of combustion may be considered to 
be carbonic acid gas; but inasmuch as the latter is readily decom- 
posed by permeating ignited pieces of solid carbon (coke) losing a 
portion of its oxygen, and becoming carbonic acid gas, we may say 
that the products of the combustion of coal are, firstly, carbonic 
acid; secondly, carbonic oxide and carbonic acid; and lastly, car- 
bonic oxide alone. The latter, in combination with heat, .is a most 
powerful deoxidizing agent. Were it not for the production in fur- 
naces of carbonic oxide gas — were it necessary that the solid car- 
bon of the coke should be alone the deoxidizing body — then it 
follows that every particle of the ore to be reduced must be brought 
into intimate contact with the reducing body; a process involving 
more care and trouble than are compatible with large metallurgic 
operations. The reducing agent being a gas, there is no longer a 
necessity for that intimate mixture of fuel and ore which would 
otherwise be necessary. Provided that the gaseous results of com- 
bustion are placed under circumstances of readily permeating the 
ore, the necessities of practice are amply subserved. There is great 
difference as to the amount of heat at which the reduction of differ- 
ent metallic oxides can be effected. The oxides of lead, bismuth, 
antimony, nickel, cobalt, copper, and iron, require a strong red 
heat in the furnace, whilst the oxides of manganese, chromium, tin, 
and zinc, do not lose their oxygen until heated to whiteness. 

On a large scale, the reduction of oxides is generally effected by 
mixing charcoal, together with the oxide to be reduced, in a refrac- 
tory clay crucible, the charcoal furnishing the carbon necessary to 
the proper performance of the work. Some use a crucible thickly 
lined with charcoal, putting in the oxide on the top of the charcoal. 
It is necessary, however, when using the crucible and charcoal, to 
use a flux, say a little borax in powder, stewed on the mixture to 
accelerate the reduction of the oxide. The borax is generally the 
first to fuse, and, as the metal is eliminated, seems to purify and 
cleanse it, as it gathers into a button at the bottom of the crucible. 
It is all the better if you give the crucible a few sharp taps when 
you take it off the fire. 

Copper Plates or Rods may be covered with a superficial coat- 
ing of brass by exposing them to the fumes given off by melted zinc 
at a light temperature. The coated plates or rods can then be rolled 
into thin sheets; or drawn into wire. 

Solution of Copper on Zinc— Dissolve 8 oz. (troy) cyanide 
of potassium, and 3 oz. cyanide of copper or zinc, in 1 gallon of 
rainwater. To be used at about 160° F., with a compound battery 
©f 3 to 12 cells. 



RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 273 

Brass Solution.— Dissolve 1 lb. (troy) cyanide of potassium, 2 
ozs. cyanide of copper, and 1 oz. cyanide of zinc, in 1 gal. of rain- 
water; then add 2 oz. of muriate ammonia. To be used at 160° 
F., for smooth work, with a compound battery of from 3 to 12 
cells. 

Brassing Iron. — Iron ornaments are covered with copper or 
brass, bv properly preparing the surface so as to remove all organic 
matter which would prevent adhesion and then plunging them into 
melted brass. A thin coating is thus spread over the iron, and it 
admits of being polished or burnished. 

To Enamel Cast Iron and Hollow Ware.— Calcined flints 
6 parts; Cornish stone or composition two parts, litharge 9 parts, 
borax 6 parts, argillaceous earth 1 part, nitre 1 part, calx of tin 6 
parts, purified potash 1 part. 2. Calcined flints 8 parts, red lead 8 
parts, borax 6 parts, calx of tin 5 parts, nitre 1 part. 3. Potter's 
composition 12 parts, borax 8 parts, white lead 10 parts, nitre 2 
parts, white marble calcined 1 part, purified potash 2 parts, calx of 
tin 5 parts. 4. Calcined flints 4 parts, potter's composition 1 part, 
nitre 2 parts, borax 8 parts, white marble calcined 1 part, argilla- 
ceous earth y 2 part, calx of tin 2 parts. Whichever of the above 
compositions is taken must be finely powdered, mixed and fused. 
The vitreous mass is to be ground when cold, sifted, and levigated 
with water; it is then made into a pap with water, or gum-water. 
This pap is smeared or brushed over the interior of the vessel* 
dried, and fused with a proper heat in a muffle. Clean the vessels 
perfectly before applying. 

Enameled Cast Iron. — Clean and brighten the iron before 
applying. The enamel consists of two coats — the body and the 
glaze. The body is made by fusing 100 lbs. ground flints, 75 of 
borax, and grinding 40 lbs. of this frit with 5 lbs. of potter's clay, 
in water, till it is brought to the consistence of a pap. A coat of 
this being applied and dried, but not hard, the glaze powder is 
sifted over it. This consists of 100 lbs. Cornish stone in fine pow- 
der, 117 of borax, 35 of soda ash, 35 of nitre, 35 of sifted slaked 
lime, 13 of white sand, and 50 of pounded white glass. These are 
all fused together; the frit obtained is pulverized. Of this powder, 
45 lbs. are mixed with 1 lb. of soda ash, in hot water, and the mix- 
ture dried in a stove is the glaze-powder. After sifting this over 
the body -coat, the cast iron article is put into a stove, kept at a 
temperature of about 212°, to dry it hard, after which it is set in a 
muffle-kiln, to fuse it into a glaze. The inside of pipes is enamelled 
(after being cleaned) by pouring the above body-composition 
through them while the pipe is being turned around to 
insure an equal coating; after the body has become set, the 
glaze pap is poured in in like manner. The pipe is finally fired 
in the kiln. 

To Enamel Copper and other Vessels.— Flint glass 6 parts, 
borax 3 parts, red lead 1 part, oxide of tin 1 part. Mix all to- 



274 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 

gether, frit, grind into powder, make into a thin paste with water, 
apply with a brush to the surface of the vessels (after scaling by- 
heat and cleaning them), repeat with a second or even a third 
coat, afterwards dry, and lastly fuse on by heat of an enamelled 
kiln. 



Emery Wheels for Polishing. — Coarse emery powder is 
mixed with about half its weight of pulverized Stourbridge loam, 
and a little water or other liquid to make a thick paste; this is 
pressed into a metallic mould by means of a screw-press, and, after 
being thoroughly dried, is baked or burned in a muffle at a tempera- 
ture above a red, and below a white heat. This forms an artifi- 
cial emery-stone, which cuts very greedily, with very little wear to 
itself. Unequalled for grinding and polishing glass, metals, 
enamels, stones, &c. 



Refining Gold and Silver.— The art of assaying gold and 
silver is founded upon the feeble affinity which these have for 
oxygen in comparison with copper, tin, and other cheap metals, 
and on the tendency which the latter metals have to oxidize rap- 
idly in contact with lead at a high temperature, and sink with it 
into any porous, earthy vessel in a thin, glassy, vitrified mass. 
The precious metal having previously been accurately weighed and 
prepared, the first process is Ctjpellation. The muffle, with 
cupel properly arranged on the " muffle plate," is placed in the fur- 
nace, and the charcoal added, and lighted at the top by means of a 
few ignited pieces thrown on last. After the cupels have been ex- 
posed to a strong white heat for about half an hour, and have be- 
come white hot, the lead is put into them by means of tongs. As 
soon as this becomes bright red and "circulating," as it is called, 
the specimen for assay, wrapped in a small piece of paper or lead- 
foil, is added; the fire is now kept up strongly until the metal en- 
ters the lead and " circulates " well, when the heat, slightly di- 
minished, is so regulated that the assay appears convex and more 
glowing than the cupel itself, whilst the "undulations" circulate 
in all directions, and the middle of the metal appears smooth, with 
a margin of litharge, which is freely absorbed by the cupel. When 
the metal becomes bright and shining, or, in the technical lan- 
guage, begins to "lighten," and prismatic hues suddenly flash 
across the globules, arid undulate and cross each other, followed by 
the metal becoming very brilliant and clear, and at length bright 
and solid (called the brightening), the separation is ended, and the 
process complete. The cupels are then drawn to the mouth of the 
"muffle," and allowed to cool slowly. When quite cold, there- 
suiting "button," if of silver, is removed by the "pliers" or 
"tongs " from the cupels, and after being flattened on a small anvil 
of polished steel, with a polished steel hammer, to detach adhering 
oxide of lead, and cleaned with a small, hard brush, is very accu- 
rately weighed. The weight is that of pure silver, and the differ- 
ence between the weight before cupellation and that of the pure 
metal represents the proportion of alloy in the sample examined. 
In the case of gold, the metal has next to undergo the operations 
of quartation. The cupelled sample is fused with thiee times 



RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 275 

its weight of pure silver (called the "witness") and in this state 
may be easily removed by parting. The alloy, after quartation, 
is hammered or rolled out into a thin strip or leaf, curled into a 
spiral form, and boiled for a quarter of an hour with about 234 to 3 
ounces of nitric acid (specific gravity, 1.3); and the fluid being 
poured off, it is again boiled in a similar manner, with 1% to 2 
ounces more nitric acid (sp. gr., 1.2); after which the gold is care- 
fully collected, washed in pure water, and dried. When the ope- 
ration of parting is skilfully conducted, the acid not too strong, 
the metal preserves its spiral form; otherwise it falls into flakes or 
powder. The second boiling is termed the "reprise." The loss 
of weight by parting corresponds to the quantity of silver origi- 
nally in the specimen. 

For Alloys containing Platinum, which usually consist of 
copper, silver, platinum, and gold, the method of assaying is as 
follows: The alloy is cupelled in the usual way, the loss 'of weight 
expresses the amount of copper, and the "button," made into a 
riband and treated with sulphuric acid, indicates by the portion 
dissolved that also of the silver present. By submitting the resi- 
duum to quartation, the platinum becomes soluble in nitric acid. 
The loss after digestion in this menstruum expresses the weight of 
that metal, and the weight of the portion now remaining is that of 
pure gold. Gold containing palladium may be assayed in the 
same manner. 

Annealing. — This consists in putting the pure gold into a small, 
porous crucible, or cupel, and heating it to redness in the muffle. 
Weighing must be done with the utmost accuracy. The weight in 
grains troy, doubled or quadrupled as the case may be, gives the 
number of carats fine of the alloy examined, without calculation. 

According to the old French method of assaying gold, the fol- 
lowing quantities were taken: For the assay pound, 12 gr. ; fine 
silver, 30 grs. ; lead, 108 grs. These having been cupelled together, 
the perfect button is rolled into a leaf (l^f by 5 inches), twisted on 
a quill, and submitted to parting with 2% oz. and \y 2 . 6z. of nitric 
acid, sp. gr., 1.16 (20° Baume). The remainder of the process is 
similar to that above described. 

The usual weight of silver taken for the assay pound, when the 
fineness is reckoned in lOOOths, is 20 grs., every real grain of which 
represents 50-l000ths of fineness, and so on of smaller divisions. 

Enamelling on Gold and Copper.— The basis of all enamels 
is a highly transparent and fusible glass, called frit, flux, or 
paste, which readily receives a color on the addition of the metal- 
lic oxides. Preparation.— Red lead, 16 parts ; calcined borax, 3 
parts; pounded flint glass, 12 parts; flints, 4 parts. Fuse in a 
Hessian crucible for 12 hours, then pour it out into water, and 
reduce it to powder in a biscuit- ware mortar. The following direc- 
tions will serve to show how the coloring preparations are made: 
Black enamels are made with peroxide of manganese, or prot- 
oxide of iron, to which more depth of color is given with a little 
cobalt. Violet enamel of a very fine hue is made from peroxyde 



276 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 

of manganese in small quantity with saline or alkaline fluxes. Red 
enamel is made from protoxide of copper. Boil a solution of equal 
parts of sugar and acetate of copper in four parts of water. The 
sugar takes possession of a portion of the cupreous oxide, and re- 
duces it to the protoxide; when it may be precipitated in the 
form of a granular powder of a brilliant red. After about two 
hours of moderate boiling, the liquid is set aside to settle, decanted 
off the precipitate, which is washed and dried. By this pure 
oxide any tint may be obtained from red to orange by adding a 
greater or smaller quantity of peroxide of iron. The oxide and 
purple of cassius are likewise employed to colored enamel. This 
composition resists a strong fire very well. Greek enamel can be 
produced by a mixture of yellow and blue, but is generally obtained 
direct from the oxide of copper, or better still with the oxide of 
chrome, which last will resist a strong heat. Yellow. — Take one 
part of white oxide of antimony, with from one to three parts of 
white lead, one of alum, and one of sal ammoniac. Each of these 
substances is to be pulverized, then all are to be exactly mixed, 
and exposed to a heat adequate to decompose the sal ammoniac. 
This operation is judged to be finished when the yellow color is 
well brought out. Blue. — This color is obtained from the oxide 
of cobalt, or some of its combinations, and it produces it with such 
intensity that only a very little can be used lest the shade should 
pass into black. A White enamel may be prepared with a calcine 
formed of 2 parts of tin and 1 of lead, calcined together: of this 
combined oxide, 1 part is melted with two parts of fine crystal and a 
very little manganese, all previously ground together. When the 
fusion is complete, the vitreous matter is to be poured into clear 
water, and the frit is then dried and melted anew. Repeat the 
pouring into water three or four times, to insure a perfect combi- 
nation. Screen the crucible from smoke and flame. The smallest 
portions of oxide of iron or copper admitted into this enamel will 
destroy its value. 

The artist prepares his enamel colors by pounding them in an 
agate mortar, with an agate pestle, and grinding them on an agate 
slab, with oil of lavender rendered viscid by exposure to the sun, in 
a shallow vessel, loosely covered with gauze or glass. He should 
have alongside of him a stove, in which a moderate fire is kept up, 
for drying his work whenever the fignres are finished. It is then 
passed through the muffle. 

Silver Plating.— File the parts which are to receive the plate 
very smooth; then apply over the surface the muriate of zinc, 
which is made by dissolving zinc in muriatic acid; now hold this 
part over a dish containing hot soft solder, and with a swab apply 
the solder to the part to which it will adhere; brush off all super- 
fluous solder, so as to leave the surface smooth; you wiU now take 
No. 2 fair silver plate, of the right size to cover the prepared sur- 
face, and lay the plate upon it, and rub down smooth with a cloth 
moistened with oil; then, with a turned soldering iron, pass slowly 
over all the surface of the plate, which melts the solder underneath 
it, causing the plate to adhere as firmly as the solder does to the 
iron; then polish the surface, and finish with buckskin. 



EECEIPTS FOK MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 277 

Electro Gold Plating.— Take a $2.50 piece of gold, and put 
it into a mixture of 1 oz. nitric, and 4 oz. muriatic acid (glass ves- 
sels only are to be used in this work;) when it is all cut, dissolve >£ 
oz. of sulphate of potash in 1 pint of pure rain water, and mix 
with the gold solution, stirring well; then let it stand, and the gold 
will be thrown down; then pour off the acid fluid, and wash the 
gold in two or three waters, or until no acid is tasted by touching 
the tongue to the gold. Now dissolve 1 oz. of cyanuret of potas- 
sium in 1 pint of pure rain water, to which add the gold, and. it is 
ready for use. Clean the article to be plated from all grease and 
dirt, with whiting and a good brush; if there are cracks, it may be 
necessary to put the articJe in a solution of caustic potash; at all 
events clean it perfectly; then suspend it in the cyanuret of gold 
solution with a small strip of zinc, cut about the width of a com- 
mon knitting needle, hooking the top over a stick which will reach 
across the top of the vessel holding the solution. If the zinc is too 
large, the deposit will be made so fast it will scale off. The slower 
the plating goes on the better, and this is arranged by the size of 
the zinc used. When not in use keep it well corked and out of the 
A'ay of children, for it is very poisonous. 

Electro Silver Plating is done every way the same as gold 
(using coin,) except that rock-salt is used instead of the cyanuret 
of potassium, to hold the silver in solution for use, and when it is 
of the proper strength of salt, it has a thick curdy appearance, or 
you can add salt until the silver will deposit on the article to be 
plated, which is all that is required. This method entails no 
trouble with using a battery, and is the successful result of a long 
series of experiments in electro-plating. 

Elklngton's Patent Gilding.— Fine gold, 5 oz. (troy;) nirro- 
muriatic acid, 52 oz. (avoirdupois;) dissolve by heat, and'continue 
the heat until red or yellow vapors cease to be evolved; decant the 
clear liquor into a suitable vessel; add distilled water, 4 gallons; 
pure bi-carbonate of potassa, 20 lbs.; and boil for 2 hours. X. B. 
The nitro-muriatic acid is made with pure nitric acid (sp. gr. 1.45,) 
21 oz.; pure muriatic acid (sp. gr. 1.15,) 17 oz.; and distilled water, 
14 oz. 

The articles, after being perfectly cleaned from scale or grease, 
and receiving a proper fate, are to'be suspended on wires, dipped 
into the liquid boiling hot, and moved about therein, when, in from 
a few seconds to a minute, depending on the newness and strength 
of the liquid, the requisite coating of gold will be deposited on 
them. By a little practice the time to withdraw the articles is 
readily known; the duration of the immersion required to produce 
any given effect gradually increases as the liquid weakens by use. 
When properly gilded, the articles are withdrawn from the solution 
of gold, washed in clean water and dried; after which they un- 
dergo the usual operation of coloring, &c. 

A. "dead gold" appearance is produced by the application to the 
articles of a weak solution of nitrate of mercury previously to the 
hnmersion in the gilding liquor, or the deadening may be given by 
applying a solution of the nitrate to the newly gilded surface, and 
then expelling the mercury by heat. 



278 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 

Cold Silvering on Metals.— Mix 1 part of chloride of silver 
with 3 parts of pearlash, \y 2 parts common salt, and 1 part whiting; 
and well rub the mixture on the surface of brass or copper, (pre- 
viously well cleaned.,) by means of a piece of soft leather, or a 
cork moistened, with water, and dipped in the powder. When 
properly silvered, the metal should be well washed in hot water, 
slightly alkalized, then wiped dry. 

To Heighten the Color of Yellow Gold.— Saltpetre, 6 oz.; 
green copperas, 2 oz.; white vitriol and alum, of each, 1 oz. If 
Wanted redder, a small quantity of blue vitriol must be added. 

For Green Gold.— Saltpetre, 1 oz. 10 dwts.; sal ammoniac, 
1 oz. 4 dwts.; Roman vitriol, 1 oz. 4 dwts.; verdigris, 18 dwts. 

For Red Gold. — To 4 oz. melted yellow wax, add, in fine pow- 
der, iy oz. of red ochre; iy oz. verdigris, calcined till it yields no 
fumes; and y 2 oz. of calcined borax. Mix tbem well together. 
Dissolve either of above mixtures in water, as the color is wanted, 
and use as required. 

Coloring of Gilding.— Defective colored gilding may also be 
improved by the help of the following mixture: Nitrate of potash, 
3 oz.; alum, iy oz.; sulphate of zinc, iy oz.; common salt, \y 2 oz. 
These ingredients are to be put into a small quantity of water to 
form a sort of paste, which is put upon the articles to be colored; 
they are then placed upon an iron plate over a clear fire, so that 
they will attain nearly to a black heat, when they are suddenly 
plunged into cold water; this gives them a beautiful high color. 
Different hues may be had by a variation in the mixture. 

Gold is taken from the surface of silver by spreading over it 
a paste made of powdered sal-ammoniac, with aqna fortis, and 
heating it till the matter smokes, and it is nearly dry; when the 
gold may be separated by rubbing it with a scratch brush. 

Moulds and Dies. — Copper, zinc, and silver in equal propor- 
tions, melt together under a coat of powdered charcoal, and mould 
into the form'you desire. Bring them to nearly a white heat, and 
lay on the thing you would take the impression of, press with suffi- 
cient force, and you will get a perfect and beautiful impression. 

Polishing Powder for Gold and Silver.— Rock alum (burnt 
and finely powdered,) 5 parts; levigated chalk, lpart. Mix; apply 
with a dry brush. 

Silver Plating Fluid.— Dissolve 1 ounce of nitrate of silver in 
crystal, in 12 ounces of soft water; then dissolve in the water 2 oz. 
cyanurefc of potash; shake the whole together, and let it stand till 



RECEIPTS FOE MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 279 

it becomes clear. Have ready some half-ounce vials, and fill half 
full of Paris white, or fine whiting; and then fill up the bottles 
with the liquor, and it is ready for use. The whiting does not in- 
crease the coating power; it only helps to clean the articles, and 
save the silver fluid, by half filling the bottles. 

To Temper Gravers and Drills. — "When the graver or drill is 
too hard, which may be known by the frequent breaking of the 
point, temper as follows: Heat a poker red hot, and hold the 
graver to it within an inch of the point, waving it to and fro till 
the steel changes to a light straw color; then put the point into oil 
to cool, or hold the graver close to the flame of a candle till it be of the 
same color, and cool in tallow; but be careful either way not to hold 
it too long, for then it will be too soft, in which case the point will 
be blue, and must be broken off, and whetted and tempered anew. 
For jewellers' drills, no better tempering liquid can be got than the 
first-named liquid under the blacksmiths' department, which see. 

Jeweler's Armenian Cement.— Isinglass soaked in water and 
dissolved in spirit, 2 oz. (thick) ; dissolve in this 10 grains of very 
pale gum ammonia (in tears) by rubbing them together; then add 
6 large tears of gum mastic, dissolved in the least possible quantity 
of rectified spirit. When carefully made, this cement resists mois- 
ture and dries colorless. Keep in a closely stopped vial. 

Jeweler's Turkish Cement.— Put into a bottle 2 oz. of isinglass 
and 1 oz. of the best gum arabic; cover them with proof spirits, 
cork loosely, and place the bottle in a vessel of water, and boil it 
till a thorough solution is effected; then strain for use; best cement 
known. 

Reviver of Old Jewelry.— Dissolve sal-ammoniac in urine, 
and put the jewelry in it for a short time; then take it out, and rub 
with chamois leather, and it will appear equal to new. 

To Recover Gold From Gilt Metal. — Take a solution of 
borax water, apply to the gilt surface, and sprinkle over it some 
finely powdered sulphur; make the article red hot, and quench it 
in water; then scrape off the gold, and recover it by means of lead. 

To Separate Gold and Silver from Lace, &c — Cut in 

pieces the gold or silver lace, tie it tightly, and boil it in soap lye 
till the size appears diminished; take the cloth out of the liquid, 
and, after repeated rinsings in cold water, beat it with a mallet to 
draw out all the alkali. Open the linen, and the pure metal will be 
found in all its beauty. 

Door Plates— to make.— Cut your glass the right size, and 
make it perfectly clean with alcohol or soap; then cut a strip of tin- 
foil sufficiently long and wide for the name, and with a piece of 



280 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 

ivory or other burnisher rub it lengthwise to make it smooth; now 
wet the glass with the tongue (as saliva is the best sticking sub- 
stance,) or if the glass is very large, use a weak solution of gum 
arabic, or the white of an egg in half a pint of water, and lay on 
the foil, rubbing it down to the glass with a bit of cloth, then also 
with the burnisher; the more it is burnished the better will it look; 
now mark the width on the foil which is to be the height of the 
letter, and put on a straight edge, and hold it firmly to the foil, and 
with a sharp knife cut the foil, and take off the superfluous edges; 
then either lay out the letters on the back of the foil (so they shall 
read correctly on the front) by your own judgment or by means of 
pattern letters, which can be purchased for that purpose; cut with 
the knife, carefully holding down the pattern or straight edge, 
whichever you use; then rub down the edge of all the letters with 
the back of the knife, or edge of the burnisher, which prevents the 
black paint or japan which you next put over the back of the plate 
from getting under the foil; having put a line above and one below 
the name, or a border around the whole plate or not as you bar- 
gain for the job. The Japan is made by dissolving asphaltum in 
just enough turpentine to cut it (see "Asphaltum Varnish;") apply 
with a brush, as other paint, over the back of the letters, and over 
the glass forming a back ground. This is used on the iron plate of the 
frame, also putting it on when the plate is a little hot; and, as soon 
as it cools, it is dry. A little lamp-black may be rubbed into it if 
you desire it any blacker than it is without it. 



Etching on Glass.— Druggist bottles, bar-tumblers, signs, 
and glassware of every description, can be lettered in a beautiful 
style of art, by simply giving the article to be engraved, or etched, 
a thin coat of the engraver's varnish (see next receipt), and the 
application of fluoric acid. Before doing so, the glass must be 
thoroughly cleaned and heated, so that it can hardly be held. The 
varnish is then to be applied lightly over, and made smooth by 
dabbing it with a small ball of silk, filled with cotton. When dry 
and even, the lines maybe traced on it by a sharp steel, cutting 
clear through the varnish to the glass The varnish must be re- 
moved clean from each letter, otherwise it will be an imperfect job. 
When all is ready, pour on or apply the fluoric acid with a feather, 
filling each letter. Let it remain until it etches to the required 
depth, then wash off with water, and remove the varnish. 



Etching Varnish.— Take of virgin wax and asphaltum each 
2 oz.; of black pitch and Burgundy pitch, each % oz.; melt the 
wax and pitch in a new earthenware glazed pot, and add to them, 
by degrees, the asphaltum, finely powdered. Let the whole boil, 
simmering gradually, till such time as that, taking a drop upon a 
plate, it will break when it is cold, on bending it double two or three 
times betwixt the fingers. The varnish, being then boiled enough, 
must be taken off the fire, and, after it cools a little, must be poured 
into warm water that it may work the more easily with the hands, 
so as to be formed into balls, which must be kneaded, and put into 
a piece of taff ety for use. 



RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 281 

Fluoric Acid, to Make for Etching Purposes. — Ton 

can make your own fluoric (sometimes called hydro-fluoric) acid, 
by getting the fluor or Derbyshire spar, pulverizing it, and putting 
ail of it into sulphuric acid which the acid will cut or dissolve. 
Inasmuch as fluoric acid is destructive to glass, it cannot be kept 
in common bottles, but must be kept in lead or gutta percha bottles. 

Glass-Grinding for Signs, Shades, Etc. — After you have 
etched a name or other design upon uncolored glass, and wish to 
have it show off to a better advantage by permitting the light to 
pass only through the letters, you can do so by taking a piece 
of flat brass sufficiently large not to dip into the letters, but pass 
over them when gliding upon the surface of the glass ; then, with 
flour of emery, and keeping it wet, you can grind the whole surface, 
very quickly, to look like the ground glass globes often seen upon 
lamps, except the letter, which is eaten below the general surface. 

Gold and Silver Ink.— The metal leaf is ground with honey 
until of a fine powder; it is then washed to remove the honey, and. 
the powder is mixed with gum water for use. 

Gold Lustre for Stoneware, China, Etc. — Gold, 6 parts; 
aquaregia, 36 parts. Dissolve, then add tin, 1 part; next add bal- 
sam of sulphur, 3 parts; oil of turpentine, 1 part. Mix gradually 
into a mortal', and rub it until the mixture becomes hard ; then add 
oil of turpentine, 4 parts. It is then to be applied to a ground pre- 
pared for the purpose. 

( Gilding China and Glass.— Powdered gold is mixed with 
borax and gum water, and the solution applied with a camel-hair 
pencil. Heat is then applied by a stove until the borax fuses, when 
the gold is fixed and afterwards burnished. 

Glass Staining. — The following colors, after having been pre- 
pared, and rubbed upon a plate of ground-glass, with the spirit of 
turpentine or lavender, thickened in the air, are applied with a hair- 
pencil. Before using them, however, it is necessary to try them on 
small pieces of glass, and expose them to the fire, to ascertain if the 
desired tone of color is produced. The artist must be guided by 
these proof-pieces in using his colors. The glass proper for receiv- 
tng these pigments should be colorless, uniform and difficult of fu- 
sion. A design must be drawn on paper, and placed beneath the 
plate of glass. The upper side of the glass, being sponged over 
with gum-water, affords, when dry, a surface proper for receiving 
the colors without the risk of their running irregularly, as they 
would otherwise do on the slippery glass. The artist draws on the 
plate (usually in black), with a fine pencil, all the traces which 
mark the great outlines or shades of the figures. Afterwards, when 
it is dry, the vitrifying colors are laid on by means of larger hair- 
pencils; their selection being regulated by the burnt specimen-tints 
above mentioned. The following are all fast colors, which do not 
run, except the yellow, which must, therefore, be laid on the oppo- 
site side of the glass. The preparations being all laid on, the glass 
is ready for being fired in a muffle, in order to fix and bring out the 
proper colors. The muffle must be made of very refractory fire- 

20 



282 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 

clay, flat at its bottom, and only five or six inches high, with a 
strong, arched roof, and close on all sides, to exclude smoke and 
flame. On the bottom, a smooth bed of sifted lime, freed from 
water, about half an inch thick, must be prepared for receiving the 
glass. Sometimes, several plates of glass are laid over each other, 
with a layer of lime-powder between each. The fire is now lighted, 
and very gradually raised, lest the glass should be broken; then 
keep it at a full heat for three or four hours, more or less, according 
to the indications of the trial slips; the yellow coloring being princi- 
pally watched, it furnishing the best criterion of the state of the 
others. When all is right, let the fire die out, so as to anneal the 
glass. 

Stained-Glass Pigments.— No. 1. Mesh color.— Red lead, 1 oz.; 
red enamel (Venetian glass enamel, from alum and copperas cal- 
cined together) : grind them to a fine powder, and work this up 
with alcohol upon a hard stone. When slightly baked, this pro- 
duces a fine flesh color. 

No. 2. Black Color.— Take 14% oz. of smithy scales of iron; mix 
them with 2 oz. of white glass; antimony 1 oz.; manganese, % oz.: 
pound and grind these ingredients together, with strong vinegar. 

No. 3. Brown Color.— White glass or enamel, 1 oz.; good man- 
ganese, y 2 oz. : grind together. 

No. 4. Red, Rose and Brown Colors are made from peroxide 
of iron, prepared by nitric acid. The flux consists of borax, sand 
and minium, in small quantities. 

Red Color may likewise be obtained from 1 oz. of red chalk, 
pounded, mixed with 2 oz. of white, hard enamel, and a little per- 
oxide of copper. 

A Red may also be composed of rust of iron, glass of antimony, 
yellow glass of lead, such as is used by potters (or litharge,) each 
in equal quantities; to which a little sulphuret of silver is added. 
This composition, well ground, produces a very fine red color on 
glass. 

No. 5. Green.— 2 oz. of brass, calcined into an oxide; 2oz.; of 
minium, and 8 oz. of white sand: reduce them to a fine powder, 
which is to be enclosed in a well-luted crucible, and heated strongly 
in an air-furnace for an hour. When the mixture is cold, grind it 
in a brass mortar. Green may, however, be advantageously pro- 
duced, by a yellow on one side, and a blue on the other. Oxide of 
chrome lias been also employed to stain glass green. 

No. 6. A Fine Yellow Stain.— Take fine silver, laminated thin, 
dissolve in nitric acid, dilute with abundance of water, and precipi- 
tate with solution of sea-salt; mix this chloride of silver in a dry 
powder, with three times its weight of pipe-clay, well burnt and 
pounded. The back of the glass pane is to be painted with this 
powder; for; when painted on the face, it is apt to run into the other 
colors. 



RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 283 

A Pale Yellow can be made by mixing sulphuret of silver with 
glass of antimony and yellow ochre, previously calcined to a red' 
brown tint. Work all these powders together, and paint on the 
back of the glass. Or silver lamina, melted with sulphur, and glass 
of antimony, thrown into cold water, and afterwards ground to 
powder, afford a yellow. 

A Pale Yellow may be made with the. powder resulting from 
brass, sulphur and glass" of antimony, calcined together in a cruci- 
ble till they cease to smoke, and then mixed with a little burnt ochre. 

The Fine Yellow of M. Meraud is prepared from chloride of 
silver, oxide of zinc, and rust of iron. This mixture, simply 
ground, is applied on the glass. 

Orange Color. — Take 1 part of silver-powder, as precipitated 
from the nitrate of that metal, by plates of copper, and washed; 
mix with 1 part of red ochre, and 1 of yellow, by careful tritura- 
tion; grind into a thin pap, with oil of turpentine or lavender; apply 
this with a brush, and burn in. 

Silvering Looking-G-lasses -with Pure Silver.— Prepare a 

mixture of 3 grs. of ammonia, 60 grs. nitrate of silver, 90 minims of 
spirits of wine, 90 minims of water; when the nitrate of silver is 
dissolved, filter the liquid, and add a small quantity of sugar 
(15 grs.,) dissolved in 1% oz. of water and \% oz. spirits of wine. 
Put the glass into this mixture, having one side covered with var- 
nish, gum, or some substance to prevent the silver being attached 
to it. Let it remain for a few days, and you have a most elegant 
looking-glass; yet it is far more costly than the quicksilver. 

Another Method.— A sheet of tin-foil corresponding to the size 
of the plate of glass is evenly spread on a perfectly smooth and 
solid marble table, and every* wrinkle on its surface is carefully 
rubbed down with a brush; a portion of mercury is then poured 
on, and rubbed over the foil with a clean piece of soft woolen stuff, 
after which, two rules are applied to the edges, and mercury poured 
on to the depth of a crown piece; when any oxide on the surface 
is carefully removed, and the sheet of glass, perfectly clean and 
dry, is slid along over the surface of the liquid metal, so that no 
air, dirt, or oxide can possibly either remain or get between them. 
When the glass has arrived at its proper position, gentle pressure 
is applied, and the table sloped a little to carry off the waste mer- 
cury; after which it is covered with flannel, and loaded with heavy 
weights; in twenty-four hours, it is removed to another table, and 
further slanted, and this position is progressively increased during 
a month till it becomes perpendicular. 

Porcelain Colors.— The following are some of the colors used 
in the celebrated porcelain manufactory of Sevres, and the pro- 
portions in which they are compounded. Though intended for 
porcelain painting, nearly all are applicable to painting on glass. 
Flux No. 1 minium or red lead, 3 parts; white sand, washed, 1 
part. This mixture is melted, by which it is converted into a 



284 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 

greenish-colored glass. Flux No. 2. Gray flux.— Of No. 1, 8 parts; 
fused borax in powder, 1 part; this mixture is melted. Flux No. 3. 
For carmines and greens.— Melt together fused borax, 5 parts; 
calcined flint, 3 parts; pure minium, 1 part. No. 1. Indigo blue. 
— Oxide of cobalt, 1 part; flux No. 3, 2 parts. Deep azure blue. 
—Oxide of cobalt, 1 part; oxide of zinc, 2 parts; flux No. 3, 5 parts; 
No. 2. Emerald green.— Oxide of copper, 1 part; antimonic acid, 
10 parts; flux No. 1, 30 parts; pulverize together, and melt. No. 3. 
Grass green.— Green oxide of chromium, 1 part; flux No. 3, 3 
parts; triturate and melt. No. 4. Yellow. — Antimonic acid, 1 
part; subsulphate of the peroxyde of iron, 8 parts; oxide of zinc, 4 
parts; flux No. 1, 36 parts; rub together, and melt; if this color is 
too deep, the salt of iron is diminished. No. 5. Fixed yellow 
for touches. — No. 4, 1 part; white enamel of commerce, 2 parts; 
melt and pour out; if not sufficiently fixed, a little sand may be 
added. No. 6. Deep nankin yellow.— Subsulphate of iron, 1 
part; oxide of zinc, 2 parts; flux No. 2, 8 parts; triturate without 
melting. No. 7. Deep red.— Subsulphate of iron, calcined in a 
muffle until it becomes of a beautiful capucine red, 1 part; flux No. 
2, 3 parts; mix without melting. No. 8. Liver brown. — Oxide of 
iron made of red brown, and mixed with 3 times its weight of flux. 
No. 2; a tenth of sienna earth is added to it, if it is not deep enough. 
No. 9. White. — The white enamel of commerce, in cakes. No. 10. 
Deep black. — Oxide of cobalt, 2 parts; copper, 2 parts; oxide of 
manganese, 1 part; flux No. 1, 6 parts; fused borax, y 2 part; melt, 
and add oxide of manganese, 1 part; oxide of copper, 2 parts; 
triturate without melting. 

The Application —Follow the general directions given in 
another part of this work, in relation to staining glass. 

Glass and Porcelain Gilding.— Dissolve in boiled linseed oil an 
equal weight either of copal or amber; add as much oil of turpen- 
tine as will enable you to apply the compound or size thus formed, 
as thin as possible, to the parts of the glass intended to be gilt. 
The glass is to be placed in a stove till it will almost burn the fingers 
when handled; at this temperature the size becomes adhesive, and 
a piece of gold-leaf, applied in the usual way, will immediately 
stick. Sweep off the superfluous portions of the leaf, and when 
quite cold it may be burnished; taking care to interpose a piece of 
India paper between the gold and the burnisher. See another pro- 
cess in a previous part of this work. 

Soluble Glass.— 1. Silica, 1 part; carbonate of soda, 2 parts; fuse 
together. 2. Carbonate of soda, (dry,) 54 parts; dry carbonate of 
potassa, 70 parts; silica, 192 parts; soluble in boiling water, yielding 
a fine transparent, semi-elastic varnish. 3. Carbonate of potassa, 
(dry,) 10 parts; powdered quartz (or sand, free from iron or 
alumina,) 15 parts; charcoal, 1 part; all fused together. Soluble in 
5 or 6 times its weight of boiling water. The filtered solution 
evaportaed to dryness' yields a transparent glass, permanent in the 
air. 



RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 285 

To Drill and Ornament Glass. — Glass can be easily drilled 
by a steel drill, hardened but not drawn, and driven at a high 
velocity. Holes of any size, from the 16th of an inch upwards, can 
be drilled, by using spirits of turpentine as a dip; and, easier still, 
by using camphor with the turpentine. Do not press the glass 
very hard against the drill. If you require to ornament glass by 
turning in a lathe, use a good mill file and the turpentine and cam- 
phor drip, and you will find it an easy matter to produce any shape 
you choose. 



Gilding Glass Signs, &c— Cut a piece of thin paper to the size 
of your glass, draw out your design correctly in black lead-pencil 
on the paper, then prick through the outline of the letters with a 
fine needle, tie up a little dry white lead in a piece of rag; this is a 
pounce-bag. Place your design upon the glass, right side up, dust 
it with the pounce-bag; and, after taking the paper off, the design 
will appear in white dots upon the glass; these will guide you in 
laying on the gold on the opposite side, which must be well cleaned, 
preparatory to laying on the gold. Preparing the size. — Boil 
perfectly clean water in an enamelled saucepan, and while boiling, 
add 2 or 3 shreds of best selected isinglass, after a few minutes 
strain it through a clean linen rag; when cool it is ready for use. 
Clean the glass perfectly. — When this is done, use a flat 
camel's-hair brush for laying on the size; and let it drain off when 
you put the gold on. When the gold is laid on and perfectly dry, 
take a ball of the finest cotton wool and gently rub or polish the 
gold; you can then lay on another coat of gold if desirable; it is now 
ready for writing. In doing this, mix a little of the best vegetable 
black japan; thin with turpentine to a proper working consistency; 
apply this when thoroughly dry; wash off the superfluous gold, and 
shade as in sign- writing. 



Gilder's Gold Size. — Drying or boiled linseed oil, thickened 
with yellow ochre, or calcined red ochre, and carefully reduced to 
the utmost smoothness by grinding. It is thinned with oil of tur- 
pentine. 



To Gild Letters on Wood, &c.— When your sign is prepared 
as smooth as possible, go over it with a sizing made by the white of 
an egg dissolved in about four times its weight of cold wafer; add- 
ing a small quantity of fuller's earth; this is to prevent the gold 
sticking to any part but the letters. When dry, set out the letters' 
and commence writing, laying on the size as thinly as possible, 
with a sable pencil. Let it stand until you can barely feel a slight 
stickiness, then goto work with your gold leaf knife and cushion, 
and gild the letters. Take a leaf up on the point of your knife- 
after giving it a slight puff into the back part of your cushion, and 
spread it on the front part of the cushion as straight as possible, 
giving it another slight puff with your mouth to flatten it out 
Now cut it into the proper size, cutting with the heel of your knife 
forwards. Now rub the tip lightly on ycur hair; take up the gold 



286 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 

on the point, and place it neatly on the letters; when they are all 
covered get some very fine cotton wool, and gently rub the gold 
until it is smooth and bright. Then wash the sign with clean water 
to take off the egg size. 

Compound Colors.— Light gray is made by mixing white 
lead with lamp-black, using more or less of each material, as you 
wish to obtain a lighter or darker shade. Buff is made from yel- 
low ochre and white lead. Silver or pearl gray. — Mix white 
lead, indigo, and a very slight portion of black, regulating the 
quantities you wish to obtain. Flaxen gray is obtained by a mix- 
ture of white lead and Prussian blue, with a small quantity of lake. 
Brick color.— Yellow ochre and red lead, with a little white. 
Oak wood color. — Three-fourths white lead and one-fourth part 
umber and yellow ochre, proportions of the last two ingredients 
being determined by the desired tints. Walnut-tree color.— 
Two-thirds white lead, and one-third red ochre, yellow ochre, and 
umber mixed according to the shade sought. If veining is required, 
use different shades of the same mixture, and for the deepest 
places, black. Jonquil.— Yellow, pink and white lead. This 
color is only proper for distemper. Lemon yellow. — Realgar and 
orpiment. The same color can be obtained by mixing yellow -pink 
with Naples yellow; but it is then only fit for distemper. Orange 
color. — Red lead and yellow ochre. Violet color. — Vermilion, 
or red lead, mixed with black or blue, and a small portion of white. 
Vermilion is far preferable to red lead in mixing this color. Pur- 
ple.— Dark-red mixed with violet color. Carnation.— Lake and 
white. Oold color. — Massicot, or Naples yellow, with a small 
quantity of realgar, and a very little Spanish white. Olive color 
may be obtained by black and a little blue, mixed with yellow. 
Yellow-pink, with a little verdigris and lamp-black; also ochre and 
a small quantity of white will produce an olive color. For distem- 
per, indigo and yellow-pink mixed with white lead or Spanish white 
must be used. " If veined it must be done with umber. Lead 
color.— Indigo and white. Chestnut color. — Red ochre and 
black, for a dark chestnut. To make it lighter, employ a mixture 
of yellow ochre. Light timber color. — Spruce ochre, white, and 
a little umber. Flesh color.— Lake, white lead, and a little ver- 
milion. Light willow green.— White mixed with verdigris. 
Grass green.— Yellow-pink mixed with verdigris. Stone color. 
—White, with a little spruce ochre. Dark lead color.— Black 
and white, with a little indigo. Fawn color. — White lead, stona 
ochre, with a little vermilion. Chocolate color. — Lamp-black 
and Spanish brown. On account of the fatness of lamp-black, mix 
some litharge and red lead. Portland stone color.— Umber, 
yellow ochre, and white lead. 

Dyes for Veneers.— A fine black.— Put 6 lbs. of logwood chips 
into your copper, with as many veneers as it will hold without 
pressing too tight; fill it with water, let it boil slowly for about 
3 hours, then add x / 2 lb. of powdered verdigris, % lb. copperas, 
bruised gall-nuts, 4 oz. ; fill the copper up with vinegar, as the water 
evaporates; let it boil gently two hours each day till the wood is 
dyed through. A fine blue.— Put oil of vitrol, 1 lb., and 4 oz. of 



RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 287 

the best powdered indigo, in a glass bottle. Set it in a glazed 
earthen pan. as it will ferment. Now put your veneers into a cop.- 
per or stone trough ; fill it rather more than one-third with water, 
and add as much of the vitriol and indigo (stirring it about) as will 
make fine blue, testing it with a piece of white paper or wood. Let 
the veneers remain till the dye has struck through. Keep the solu- 
tion of indigo a few weeks before using it; this improves the color. 
Fine yellow.— Reduce 4 lbs. of the root of barberry to dust by 
sawing, which put in a copper or brass trough; add turmeric, 4 oz.; 
water, 4 gals. ; then put in as many white holly veneers as the 
liquor will cover. Boil them together for three hours, often turn- 
ing them. When cool, add aquafortis, 2 oz., and the dye will strike 
through much sooner. Bright green. — Proceed as in the pre- 
vious receipt to produce a yellow; but, instead of aquafortis, add as 
much of the vitriolated indigo (see above, under blue dye) as will 
produce the desired color. Bright red. — Brazil dust, 2 lbs.; add 
water, 4 gals. Put in as many veneers as the liquid will cover; 
boil them for 3 hours, then add alum, 2 oz. ; aquafortis, 2 oz. ; and 
keep it luke-warm until it has struck through. Purple. — To 2 lbs. 
of chip logwood and y 2 lb. Brazil dust, add 4 gals, of water; and 
after putting in your veneers, boil for 3 hours; then add pearlash, 
6 oz., and alum, 2 oz.; let them boil for 2 or 3 hours every day till 
the color has struck through. Orange. — Take the veneers out of 
the above yellow dye, and while still wet and saturated, transfer 
them to the bright red dye till the color penetrates throughout. 

Gilders' Pickle.— Alum and common salt, each 1 oz. ; nitre, 2 
oz.; dissolved in water, y 2 pt. Used to impart a rich yellow color 
to gold surfaces. It is best used largely diluted with water. 



To Silver Ivory.— Pound a small piece of nitrate of silver in a 
mortar, add soft water to it, mix them well together, and keep in a 
phial for use. When you wish to silver any article, immerse it in 
this solution, let it remain till it turns of a deep yellow; then place 
it in clear water, and expose it to the rays of the sun. If you wish 
to depicture a figure, name, or cipher, on your ivory, dip a camel's 
hair pencil in the solution, and draw the subject on the ivory. 
After it has turned a deep yellow, wash it well with water, and 

flace it in the sunshine, occasionally wetting it with pure water. 
n a short time it will turn of a deep black color, which, if well 
rubbed, will change to a brilliant silver. 



To Improve the Color of Stains..— Nitric acid, 1 oz.; muriatic, 
y 2 teaspoonful; grain tin, % oz.; rain water, 2 oz. Mix it at least 2 
days before using, and keep your bottle well corked. 



Strong Glue for Inlaying or Veneering.— Select the best light 
brown glue, free from clouds and streaks. Dissolve this in water, 
and to every pint add 34 a gill of the best vinegar and 3^ oz. of 
isinglass. 



288 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 

Compound Iron Paint.— Finely pulverized iron filings, 1 part; 
brick dust, 1 part; and ashes, 1 part. Pour over them glue- water or 
size, set the whole near the fire, and, when warm, stir them well 
together. With this paint cover all the wood- work which may be 
in danger; when dry, give a second coat, and the wood will be ren- 
dered incombustible. 

Best "Wash for Barns and Houses.— Water lime, 1 peck; 
freshly slacked lime, 1 peck; yellow ochre in powder, 4 lbs. ; burnt 
umber, 4, lbs. To be dissolved in hot water, and applied with a 
brush. 

Durable Outside Paint.— Take 2 parts (in bulk) of water 
lime, ground fine; 1 part (in bulk) of white lead, in oil. Mix 
them thoroughly, by adding best boiled linseed oil, enough to pre- 
pare it to pass through a paint mill; after which, temper with oil 
till it can be applied with a common paint brush. Make any 
color to suit It will last 3 times as long as lead paint. It is su- 
perior. 

Farmers' Paint.— Farmers will find the following profitable for 
house or fence paint: skim milk, 2 quarts; fresh slacked lime, 8 
oz.; linseed oil, 6 oz., white Burgundy pitch, 2 oz.; Spanish white, 
three pounds. The lime is to be slacked in water, exposed to the 
air, and then mixed with about one-fourth of the milk; the oil in 
which the pitch is dissolved to be added, a little at a time; then the 
rest of the milk, and afterwards the Spanish white. This is suffi- 
cient for 27 yards, 2 coats. This is for white paint. If desirable, 
any other color may be produced ; thus, if a cream color is desired, 
in place of part of the Spanish white, use the ochre alone. 

Painting in Milk.— Skimmed milk, }4 gallon; newly slacked 
lime, 6 oz.; and 4 oz. of poppy, linseed, or nut oil; and 5 lbs, 
Spanish white. Put the lime into an earthen vessel or clean bucket; 
and, having poured on it a sufficient quantity of milk to make it 
about the thickness of cream, add the oil in small quantities, a 
little at a time, stirring the mixture well. Then put in the rest of 
the milk, afterward the Spanish white finely powdered, or any 
other desired color. For out-door work add 2 oz. each more of oil 
and slacked lime, and 2 oz. of Burgundy pitch dissolved in the oil 
by a gentle heat. 

Premium Paint, Without Oil or Lead.— Slack stone lime 
with boiling water in a tub or barrel to keep in the steam; then 
pass 6 quarts through a fine sieve. Now to this quantity add 1 
quart of coarse salt, and 1 gallon of water; boil the mixture, and 
skim it clear. To every 5 gallons of tMs skimmed mixture, add 1 
U). alum; y 2 lb. copperas; and by slow degrees % lb. potash, and 4 
quarts sifted ashes or fine sand; add any coloring desired. A more 
durable paint was never made. 

Green Paint for Garden Stands, Blinds, Etc.— Take mineral 



RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 289 

green, and white lead ground in turpentine; mix up the quantity 
you wish with a small quantity of turpentine varnish. This serves 
for the first coat. For the second, put as much varnish in your 
mixture as will produce a good gloss. If you desire a brighter 
green, add a little Prussian blue, which will improve the color. 

Milk Paint for Barns.— Any Color.— Mix water lime with 
skim-milk, to a proper consistence to apply with a brush, and 
it is ready to use. It will adhere well to wood, whether smooth or 
rough, to brick, mortar, or stone, where oil has not been used (in 
which case it cleaves to some extent, ) and forms a very hard sub- 
stance, as durable as the best oil paint. It is too cheap to estimate, 
and any one can put it on who can use a brush. Any color may be 
given to it, by using colors of the tinge desired. If a red is pre- 
ferred, mix Venetian-red with milk, not using any lime. It looks 
well for fifteen years. 

Paint.— To Make Without Lead or Oil. — Whiting, 5 lbs.; 
skimmed milk, 2 qts. ; fresh slacked lime, 2 oz. Put the lime into a 
stone-ware vessel, pour upon it a sufficient quantity of the milk to 
make a mixture resembling cream; the balance of the milk is then 
to be added; and lastly, the whiting is to be crumbled upon the 
surface of the fluid, in which it gradually sinks. At this period, it 
must be well stirred in, or ground as you would other paint, and 
it is fit for use. 

Substitute for "White Lead. Hard cake stearine, 100 lbs.; 

bleached resin, 90 lbs.; fine potato starch, 25 lbs. Melt and mix 
well. Then add mucilage, 20 lbs.; stir well, till nearly cool; then 
put away for use. 

Paints, Different Sorts.— Blue.— Blue-black, 25 lbs. ; whiting, 
100 lbs. ; road dust, sifted, 200 lbs. ; lime-water, 12 gallons. Facti- 
tious linseed oil to grind. 

White Paint.— Whiting, 500 lbs.; white-lead, 400 lbs.; lime- 
water, 20 gallons Factitious linseed-oil to grind. 

Black Paint. — Ivory or lamp-black, 100 lbs.; road-dust, sifted, 
200 lbs. ; lime-water, 18 gallons. Oil to grind. 

Brown Paint. — Venetian red, or Spanish brown, 1 cwt.; road- 
dust, 3 cwt. ; common soot, 28 lbs. ; lime-water, 15 lbs. Factitious 
linseed oil to grind. 

Paris Green.— Take unslacked lime of the best quality, slack 
it with hot water; then take the finest part of the powder, and add 
alum- water as strong as it can be made, sufficient to form a thick 
paste; then color it with bi-chromate of potash and sulphate of 
copper until the color suits your fancy, and dry it for use. N". B. — 
The sulphate of copper gives a blue tinge; the bi-chromate of pot- 
ash, a yellow. Observe this, and you will get it right. 

Beautiful Green Paint for "Walls.— Take 4 lbs. Roman vit- 
riol, and pour on it a tea-kettle full of boiling water. When dis- 
solved, add 2 lbs. pearlash, and stir the mixture well with a stick 
until the effervescence ceases; then add % lb. pulverized yellow 



290 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 

arsenic, and stir the whole together. Lay it on with a paint-brush; 
and, if the wall has not been painted before, two, or even three 
coats will be requisite. If a pea green is required, put in less; if 
an apple green, more of the yellow arsenic. This paint does not 
cost the quarter of oil-paint, and looks better. 

Blue Color for Ceilings, &c— Boil slowly for 3 hours 1 lb. 
blue vitriol and y 2 lb. of the best whiting in about 3 qts. water; 
stir it frequently while boiling, and also on taking it off the fire. 
When it has stood till quite cold, pour off the blue liquid, then 
mix the cake of color with good size, and use it with a plasterer's 
brush in the same manner as whitewash, either for walls or ceil- 
ings. 

To Harden "White-wash.— "With y 2 a pail of common white- 
wash add y 2 pint of flour. Pour on boiling water in a sufficient 
quantity to thicken it. Then add 6 gals, of the lime and water, 
and stir well. 

/ Whitewash that will not rub off.— Mix up half a pailful \ 
/ of lime and water, ready to put on the wall ; then take % pt. of 
{ flour, mix it up with water, then pour on it the boiling water, a 
sufficient quantity to thicken it ; then pour it while hot into the 
whitewash, stir ail well together, and it is ready for use. 

Whitewash.— The best method of making a whitewash for 
outside exposure is to slack half a bushel of lime in a barrel, add 
one pound of common salt, half a pound of the sulphate of zinc, 
and a gallon of sweet milk. 

Substitute for Plaster of Paris.— Best whitening, 2 lbs.; 
glue, 1 lb.; linseed oil, 1 lb. Heat all together, and stir thoroughly. 
Let the compound cool, and then lay it on a stone covered with 
powdered whitening, and heat it well till it becomes of a tough and 
firm consistence; then put it by for use, covering with wet cloths to 
keep it fresh. When wanted for use, it must be cut in pieces 
adapted to the size of the mould, into which it is forced by a screw 
press. The ornament may be fixed to the wall, picture-frame, 
&c. , with glue or white lead. It becomes in time as hard as stone 
itself. 

Glue.— Powdered chalk added to common glue strengthens it. 
A glue which will resist the action of water is made by boiling 1 
lb. of glue in 2 qts of skimmed milk. 

Cheap Waterproof Glue.— Melt common glue with the small- 
est possible quantity of water; add, by degrees, linseed oil, ren- 
dered drying by boiling it with litharge. While the oil is added, 
the ingredients must be well stirred, to incorporate them thor- 
oughly. 

Fire and Waterproof Glue.— Mix a handful of quick-lime with 
4 oz. of linseed oil; thoroughly lixiviate the mixture; boil it to a 
good thickness, and spread it on tin plates in the shade; it will be- 
come very hard, but can be dissolved over a fire, like common glue, 
and is then fit for use. 

Prepared Liquid Glue.— Take of best white glue, 16 oz.; 



EECEIPTS FOR MECRANI-CAL PURPOSES. 291 

white-lead, dry, 4 oz.; rain-water, 2 pts.; alcohol, 4 oz. With 
constant stirring, dissolve the glue and lead in the water, by 
means of a water -bath. Add the alcohol, and continue the heat 
for a few minutes. Lastly, pour into bottles, while it is still hot. 

Prussian Blue.— Take nitric acid, any quantity, and as 
much iron shavings from the lathe as the acid will dissolve; heat 
the iron as hot as it can be handled with the hand; then add to it the 
acid in small quantities as long as the acid will dissolve it; then 
slowly add double the quantity of soft water that there was of 
acid, and put in iron again as long as the acid will dissolve it. 2. 
Take prussiate of potash, dissolve it in hot water to make a strong 
solution, and make sufficient of it with the first to give the depth 
of tint desired, and the blue is made. Or,— 

Another Method.— A very passable Prussian blue is made by 
taking sulphate of iron (copperas) and prussiate of potash, equal 
parts of each; and dissolving each separately in water, then mixing 
the two waters. 

Chrome Yellow . — 1. Take sugar of lead and Paris white, of 
each 5 lbs.; dissolve them in hot water. 2. Take bi-chromate of 
potash, 6% oz., and dissolve it in hot water also; each article to be 
dissolved separately; then mix all together, putting in the bi-chro- 
mate last. Let stand twenty-four hours. 

Chrome Green. — Take Paris white, 6% lbs. ; sugar of lead, and 
blue vitriol, of each, ?>y 2 lbs. ; alum, 10% oz. ; best soft Prussian blue 
and chrome yellow, of each, 3% lbs. Mix thoroughly while in fine 
powder, and add water, 1 gallon, stirring well and let stand three 
or four hours. 

Green, Durable and Cheap.— Take spruce yellow, and color 
it with a solution of chrome yellow and Prussian blue, until you 
give it the shade you wish. 

Another Method. — Blue vitriol, 5 lbs. ; sugar of lead 6^ lbs. ; 
arsenic, 2% lbs.; bi-chromate of potash, 1% oz.; mix them thor- 
oughly in fine powder, and add water 3 parts, mixing well again, 
and let stand three or four hours. 

Pea Brown. — 1. Take sulphate of copper any quantity, and 
dissolve it in hot water. 2. Take prussiate of potash, dissolve it in 
hot water to make a strong solution; mix of the two solutions, as 
in the blue, and the color is made. 

Rose Pink.— Brazil wood, 1 lb., and boil it for two hours, 
having 1 gallon of water at the end; then strain it, ard boil alum, 1 
lb., in the same water until dissolved; when sufficiently cool to 
admit the hand, add muriate of tin, % oz. Now have Paris white, 
12% lbs. ; moisten up to a salvy consistence, and when the first is 
cool stir them thoroughly together. Let stand twenty-four hours. 

Patent Yellow.— Common salt, 100 lbs. and litharge, 400 
lbs., are ground together with water, and kept for some time in a 
gentle heat, water being added to supply the loss by evaporation; 
the carbonate of soda is then washed out with more water, and the 
white residuum heated till it acquires a fine yellow color. 



292 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 

Naples Yellow.— JSfo. 1. Metallic antimony, 12 lbs.; red lead, 
8 lbs. ; oxide of zinc, 4 lbs. Mix; calcine, triturate well together, 
and fuse in a crucible: the fused mass must be ground and elutriated 
to a fine powder. 

Cheap Yellow Paint.— Whiting, 3 cwt.; ochre, 2 cwt.; ground 
white lead, 25 lbs. Factitious linseed oil to grind. 

Stone Color Paint.— Road dust, 2 cwt.; ground white lead, 
% cwt. ; whiting, 1 cwt. ; ground umber, 14 lbs. ; lime water, 6 gals. 
Factitious linseed oil to grind. 

Glazier's Putty.— Whiting, 70 lbs.; boiled oil, 30 lbs.; water, 
2 gals. Mix; if too thin, add more whiting; if too thick, add more 
oil. 

Pish Oil Paints.— Dissolve white vitriol and litharge, of each 
14 lbs., in vinegar, 32 gals.; add whale, seal, or cod oil, 1 tun, and 
boil to dryness, continually stirring during the ebullition. The 
next day, decant the clear portion; add linseed oil, 12 gals., oil of 
turpentine, 3 gals., mix well together. The sediment left is well 
agitated with half its quantity of lime water, used for some inferior 
paints under the name of "prepared residue oil." This oil is used 
for various common purposes, as a substitute for linseed oil, of 
which the following paints are examples:— 

1. Pale Greek.— Lime water, 6 gals; whiting and road dust, of 
each, 1 cwt.; blue-black, 30 lbs.; yellow ochre, 28 lbs.; wet blue 
(previously ground in prepared residue oil,) 20 lbs.; grind well to- 
gether. For use, thin with equal parts of prepared residue oil and 
linseed oil. 

2. Bright Green.— Yellow ochre and wet blue, of each, 1 cwt.; 
road dust, 1% cwt.; blue-black, 10 lbs. ; limewater, 6 gals.; prepared 
fish oil, 4 gals.; prepared residue and linseed oils, of each, 7% gals. 

3. Lead Color.— Whiting, 1 cwt.; blue-black, 7 lbs.; white lead, 
(ground in oil,) 28 lbs ; road dust, 56 lbs.; lime water, 5 gals.; pre- 
pared residue oil, 2y 2 gals. 

4. Reddish Brown.— Lime water, 8 gals.; Spanish brown, 1 
cwt. ; road dust, 2 cwt. ; prepared fish, prepared residue and linseed 
oils, of each, 4 gals. 

5. Yellow.— Substitute ochre for Spanish brown in the last re- 
ceipt. „ 

6. Black.— Substitute lamp or blue-black for Spanish brown in 
No. 4. 

7. Stone Color.— Lime water, 4 gals.; whiting, 1 cwt.; white 
lead (ground in oil), 28 lbs.; road dust, 56 lbs.; prepared fish, lin- 
seed, and prepared residue oils, of each, 3 gals. 

8. Chocolate.— Nos. 4 and 6 mixed together so as to form a 
chocolate color. 

Remarks.— All the above paints require a little '• driers. " They 
are well fitted, by their cheapness, hardness, and durability, for 
common out-door work. 

Porcelain Finish, very Hard and "White for Parlors.— To 

prepare the wood for finish, if it be pine, give one or two coats oi 
the " Varnish— Transparent for Wood, " which prevents the pitch 



RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 203 

from oozing out, causing the finish to turn yellow; next, give the 
room at least four coats of pure zinc, which may be ground in only 
sufficient oil to enable it to grind properly; then mix to a proper 
consistence with turpentine or naphtha. Give each coat time to 
dry. When it is dry and hard, sandpaper it to a perfectly smooth 
surface, when it is ready to receive the finish, which consists of two 
coats of French zinc ground in, and thinned with Demar varnish, 
antil it works properly under the brush. 

Japan Drier, Best Quality.— Take linseed oil, 1 gallon; put 
into it gum shellac, % lb. ; litharge and burned Turkey umber, each 
34 lb. ; red lead, y lb. ; sugar of lead, 6 oz. Boil in the oil till all 
are dissolved, which will require about four hours; remove from 
the fire, and stir in spirits turpentine 1 gallon, and it is done. 

Another. — Linseed oil, 5 gallons; add red lead and litharge, each 
Zy 2 lbs.; raw umber, 1% lbs.; sugar of lead and sulphate of zinc, 
each y lb.; pulverize all the articles together, and boil in the oil 
till dissolved; when a little cool, thin with turpentine, 5 gallons. 

Drying Oil Equal to Patent Driers at One Quarter their 
Price. — Linseed oil, 2 gallons; red lead and umber, each, 4 oz.; sul- 
phate of zinc, 2 oz. ; sugar of lead, 2 oz. Boil until it will scorch a 
feather, when it is ready for use. 

Prepared Oil for Carriages, &c.— To 1 gallon linseed oil add 
2 lbs. gum shellac; litharge, y 2 lb.; red lead, yi lb.; umber, 1 oz. 
Boil slowly as usual until the gums are dissolved; grind your paints 
in this (any color,) and reduce with turpentine. Yellow ochre is 
used in floor painting. 

Drying Oils. 1.— Nut or linseed oil, 1 gal.; litharge, 12 oz; 
sugar of lead and white vitriol, of each 1 oz.; simmer and skim 
until a pellicle forms; cool, and, when settled, decant the clear. 2. 
Oil, 1 gal. ; litharge, 12 to 16 oz. ; as last. 3. Old nut or linseed oil, 

1 pint; litharge, 3 oz. Mix; agitate occasionally for 10 days; then 
decant the clear. 4. Nut oil and water, of each 2 lbs.; white vitriol, 

2 oz. ; boil to dryness. 5. Mix oil with powdered snow or ice, and 
keep it for 2 months without thawing. 

To reduce Oil Paint with "Water.— Take 8 lbs. of pure un- 
slacked lime, add 12 qts. water, stir it and let it settle, turn it off 
gently and bottle it, keep it corked till used. This will mix with 
oil, and in proportion of half will render paint more durable. 

Oil Paint.— To reduce with Water.— Gum shellac, 1 lb.; sal- 
soda, y 2 lb.; water, 3 parts; boil all together in a kettle, stirring 
till dissolved. If it does not all dissolve, add a little more sal-soda; 
when cool, bottle for use; mix up 2 quarts of oil paint as usual, any 
color desired, using no turpentine; put 1 pint of the gum shellac 
mixture with the oil paint when it becomes thick; it can then be 
reduced with water to a proper thickness to lay on with a brush. 

Another Method. — Soft water, 1 gallon; dissolve it in pearlash, 

3 oz.; bring to a boil, and slowly add shellac, 1 lb.; when cold it is 
ready to be added to oil paint in equal proportions. 

How to build Gravel Houses. — This is the best building mate- 
rial in the world. It is four times cheaper than wood, six times 



294 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES, 



cheaper than stone, and superior to either. Proportions for mix- 
ing: To eight barrows of slacked lime, well deluged with water, 
add 15 barrows of sand; mix these to a creamy consistency, then 
add 60 barrows of coarse gravel, which must be worked well and 
completely; you can then throw stones into this mixture, of any 
shape or size, up to ten inches in diameter. Form moulds for the 
walls of the house by fixing boards horizontally against upright 
standards which must be immovably braced so that they will not 
yield to the immense pressure outwards as the material settles; set 
the standards in pairs around the building where the walls are to 
stand, from six to eight feet apart, and so wide that the inner space 
shall form the thickness of the wall, Into the moulds thus formed 
throw in the concrete material as fast as you choose, and the more 
promiscuously the better. In a short time the gravel will get as 
hard as the solid rock. 

Flexible Paint for Canvas.— Yellow soap, iy 2 lbs., boiling 
water, \V 2 gals., dissolve; grind the solution while hot with good oil 
'paint, 1% cwt. Use for canvas. 

Painter's Cream.— Pale nut oil, 6 oz., mastic, 1 oz., dissolve; 
add of sugar of lead, % oz., previously ground in the least possible 
quantity of oil, then add of water q. s., gradually, until it acquires 
the consistency of cream, working it well all the time. Used to 
cover the unfinished work of painters. It will wash off with water. 

Mastic Cement for Covering the Fronts of Houses, — Fifty 
parts, by measure, of clean dry sand, fifty of limestone (not 
burned) reduced to grains like sand, or marble dust, and ten parts 
of red lead, mixed with as much boiled linseed oil as will make it 
slightly moist. The bricks to receive it should be covered with 
three coats of boiled oil, laid on with a brush, and suffered to dry 
before the mastic is put on. It is laid on with a trowel like plaster, 
but it is not so moist. It becomes hard as stone in a few months. 
Care must be exercised not to use too much oil. 

Cement for Outside of Brick Walls.— Cement for the outside 
of brick walls, to imitate stone, is made of clean sand, 90 parts; 
litharge, 5 parts; plaster of Paris, 5 parts; moistened with boiled 
linseed oil. The bricks should receive two or three coats of oil 
before the cement is applied. 

Cement for Tile Roofs. — Equal parts of whiting and dry 
sand, and 25 per cent, of litharge, made into the consistency of 
putty with linseed oil. It is not liable to crack when cold, nor melt, 
like coal-tar and asphalt, with the heat of the sun. 

Excellent Cheap Roofing.— Shingles Superseded.— Have 

your roof stiff, rafters made of stuff V/ 2 by 8 inches, well supported 
and 6 feet apart, with ribs 1 inch by 2 inches, set edgeways, well 
nailed to the rafters, about 18 inches apart. The boards may be 
thin, but must be well seasoned, and nailed close together; this 
done, lay down and cover the roof with thin, soft, spongy straw 
paper used in making paper-boxes, which comes in rolls, and cornea 



RECEIPTS FOE MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 295 

very low. Lay in course up and down the roof, and lap over, nail- 
ing down with common No. 6 tacks, with leather under the heads 
like carpet-tacks. Then spread on several coatings of the following 
composition, previously boiled, stirred, and mixed together: good 
clean tar, 8 gals.; Roman cement, 2 gals, (or in its place very fine, 
clean sand may be used;) resin, 5 lbs.; tallow, 3 lbs.; apply hot; and 
let a hand follow, and shift on sharp grit sand, pressing it into the 
tar composition. If wished fire-proof, go over the above with the 
folio whig preparation: Slake stone lime under cover with hot water 
till it falls into a fine powder ; sift and mix 6 qts. of this with 1 qt. 
salt, add 2 gals, water, boil and skim. To 5 gals, of this add 1 lb. 
alum, and V/ 2 lbs. of copperas, and slowly, while boiling, V/% lbs. 
potash, and 4 qts. of clean, sharp sand, and any coloring desired. 
Apply a thick coat with a brush, and you may have a roof which 
no fire can injure from the outside. 

"Water Lime at Fifty Cents per Barrel.— Fine, clean sand, 
100 lbs. ; quick lime in powder, 28 lbs. ; bone-ashes, 14 lbs. ; for use, 
beat up with water, and use as quick as possible. 

To Render "Wood Indestructible.— Robbins's Process.— 
This seems to be a process of inestimable value, and destined to 
produce very important results. The apparatus used consists of a 
retort or still, which can be made of any size or form, in which 
resin, coal tar, or other oleaginous substances, together with water, 
are placed in order to subject them to the action of heat. Fire 
being applied beneath the retort containing the coal tar, &c, oleagi- 
nous vapor commences to rise, and pass out through a connecting 
pipe into a large iron tank or chamber (which can also be built of 
any size), containing the timber, &c, to be operated upon. The 
heat acts at once on the wood, causing the sap to flow from every 
pore, which, rising in the form of steam, condenses on the body 
of the chamber, and discharges through an escape pipe in the 
lower part. In this process a temperature of 212° to 250° Fahr. 
is sufficient to remove the surface moisture from the wood; but 
after this the temperature should be raised to 300° or more, in order 
to completely saturate and permeate the body of the wood with the 
antiseptic vapors and heavier products of the distillation. The hot 
vapor coagulates the albumen of the wood, and opens the pores, so 
that a large portion of the oily product or creosote is admitted; the 
contraction resulting from the cooling process hermetically seals 
them, and decay seems to be almost impossible. There is a man 
hole in the retort, used to change or clean out the contents; and 
the wood chamber is furnished with doors made perfectly tight. 
The whole operation is completed in less than one hour, rendering 
the wood proof against rot, parasites, and the attacks of the Teredo 
navilis or naval worm. 



Cement for Seams In Roofs.— Take equal quantities of white 
lead and white sand, and as much oil as will make it into t\i3 
consistence of putty. It will in a few weeks become as hard ag 
stone. 



296 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 

Roman Cement.— Drift sand, 84 parts; imslacked lime, 12 lbs.; 
and 4 lbs. of the poorest cheese grated; mix well; add hot (not boil- 
ing) water to reduce to a proper consistence for plastering. Work 
well and quick with a thin, smooth coat. 

Smalt. — Roast cobalt ore to drive off the arsenic; make the 
residuum into a paste with oil of vitriol, and heat it to redness for 
an hour; powder, dissolve in water, and precipitate the oxide of 
iron by carbonate of potash, gradually added until a rose-colored 
powder begins to fall; then decant the clear, and precipitate by a 
solution of silicate of potash prepared by fusing together for 5 hours 
a mixture of 10 parts of potash, 15 parts of finely ground flints, and 
1 part charcoal. The precipitate, when dry, may be fused and 
powdered very fine. 

Fictitious Linseed Oil.— Fish or vegetable oil, 100 gallons; 
acetate of lead, 7 lbs.; litharge, 7 lbs.; dissolved in vinegar, 2 gal- 
lons. Well mixed with heat, then add boiled oil, 7 gallons; turpen- 
tine, 1 gallon. Again well mix. 

Varnishes.— Common Oil Varnish.— Resin, 4 lbs.; beeswax, 
, j lb. ; boiled 
tine, 2 quarts. 

jj Mastic Tarnish.— Mastic, 1 lb.; white wax, 1 oz.; spirits tur- 
pentine, 1 gallon; reduce the gums small; then digest it with heat 
in a close vessel till dissolved. 

Turpentine Varnish.— Resin, 1 lb.; boiled oil, 1 lb.; melt; then 
add turpentine, 2 lbs. Mix well. 

Pale Varnish.— Pale African copal , 1 part; fuse. Then add 
hot pale oil, 2 parts. Boil the mixture till it is stringy; then cool a 
little, and add spirits turpentine, 3 parts. 

Lacquer Varnish.— A good lacquer is made by coloring lacquer 
varnish with turmeric and annotto. Add as much of these two 
coloring substances to the varnish as will give it the proper color; 
then squeeze the varnish through a cotton cloth, when it forms 
lacquer. 

Deep Gold-Colored Lacquer.— Seed lac, three ounces; tur- 
meric, one ounce; dragon's blood, one-fourth ounce; alcohol, 
one pint; digest for a week, frequently shaking; decant, and 
filter. 

Lacquers are used upon polished metals and wood to impart the 
appearance of gold. If yellow is required, use turmeric, aloes, saf- 
fron, or gamboge; for red, use annotto, or dragon's blood, to color. 
Turmeric, gamboge, and dragon's blood generally afford a sufficient 
range of colors. 

Gold Varnish.— Digest shellac, sixteen parts gum sandarach 
mastic, of each three parts; crocus, one part; gum gamboge, two 
parts; all bruised, with alcohol, one hundred and forty-four parts. 
Or, digest seedlac, sandarach, mastic, of each eight parts; gam- 
boge, two parts; dragon's blood, one part; white turpentine, six 
parts; turmeric, four parts; bruised with alcohol one hundred and 
twenty parts. 



EECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 297 

G-old Lacquer.— Put into a clean four-gallon tin 1 pound ol 
ground turmeric, l l 4 ozs. of gamboge, 3% lbs. of powdered gum 
sandarach, % of a lb. of shellac, and two gallons of spirits of wine. 
When shaken, dissolved, and strained, add 1 pint of turpentine 
varnish, well mixed. 

Polish for Turner's Work.— Dissolve sandarach, 1 oz., in 
spirits of wine, y 2 pt. ; next shave beeswax, 1 oz. ; and dissolve it in 
a sufficient quantity of spirits turpentine to make it into a paste; 
add the former mixture by degrees to it, then with a woolen cloth 
apply it to the work while it is in motion in the lathe, and with a 
soft linen rag polish it. It will appear as if highly varnished. 

Varnish for Tools.— Take tallow, 2 oz.; resin, 1 oz., and melt 
together. Strain while hot to get rid of specks which are in the 
resin; apply a slight coat on your tools with a brush, and it will 
keep off rust for any length of time. 

Gold Varnish. — Turmeric, 1 dram; gamboge, 1 dram; tur- 
pentine, 2 pints; shellac, 5oz.; sandarach, 5 oz.; dragon's blood, 8 
drams; thin mastic varnish, 8 oz.; digest with occasional agitation 
for 14 days; then set it aside to fine, and pour off the clear. 

Book-Binder's Varnish. — Shellac, eight parts; gum ben- 
zoin, 3 parts; gum mastic, two parts; bruise, and digest in alco- 
hol, 48 parts; oil of lavender, y 2 part. Or, digest shellac, 4 parts; 
gum mastic, 2 parts; gum dammer and white turpentine, of each 1 
part; with alcohol (95 per cent.), 28 parts. 

Beautiful Pale Amber Varnish.— Amber, pale and trans- 
parent, 6 lbs.; fuse; add hot clarified linseed oil, 2 gals.; boil till it 
strings strongly, cool a little, and add oil of turpentine, 4 gals. This 
soon becomes very hard, and is the most durable of oil varnishes. 
When wanted to dry quicker, drying oil may be substituted for 
linseed, or "driers" may be added during the cooling. 

Black Coach- Varnish.— Amber, 1 lb.; fuse; add hot drying 
oil, y 2 pt. ; powdered black resin and Naples asphaltum, of each 3 
oz. When properly incorporated and considerably cooled, add oil 
of turpentine, 1 pt. 

Body Varnish.— Finest African copal, 8 lbs.; fuse carefully; 
add clarified oil, 2 gals. ; boil gently for 4% hours, or until quite 
stringy; cool a little, and thin with oil of turpentine, 3% gals. 
JDri 



Carriage Varnish.— Sandarach, 19 oz.; pale shellac, 9% oz.; 
very pale transparent resin, 12% oz.; turpentine, 18 oz.; 85 per 
cent, alcohol, 5 pts. ; dissolve. Used for the internal parts of car* 
riages, &c. Dries in ten minutes. 

Cabinet-Maker's Varnish.— Very pale shellac, 5 lbs.; mastic, 7 
oz. ; alcohol, 90 per cent, 5 or 6 pts. ; dissolve in the cold with frequent 
stirring. Used for French polishing, &c. 

Japarmer's Copal Varnish.— Pale African copal, 7 lbs; fuse; 
21 



298 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 

add clarified linseed oil, y ? gal. ; boil five minutes, remove it into 
the open air; add boiling oil of turpentine, 3 gals.; mix well, strain 
it into the cistern, and cover it up immediately. Used to varnish 
furniture, and by japanners, coachmakers, &c. 

Copal Varnish. — Pale, hard copal, 8 lbs.; add hot and pale 
drying oil, 2 gals.; boil till it strings strongly, cool a little, and thin 
with hot rectified oil of turpentine, 3 gals. ; and strain immediately 
into the store can. Very fine. 

Gold Varnish of Watin, for Gilded Articles.— Gum! ac 
in grains, gamboge, dragon's blood, and annotto, of each 12% oz.; 
saffron, 3% oz. Each resin must be dissolved separately in 5 pts. 
of 90 per cent, alcohol, and two separate tinctures must be made 
with the dragon's blood and annotto in a like quantity of spirit; 
and a proper proportion of each mixed together to produce the re- 
quired shade. 

Varnish for Plaster Casts. — White soap and white wax, 
each % oz.; water, 2 pts.; boil together in a clean vessel for a short 
time. This varnish is to be applied when cold with a soft brush. 

Transparent Varnish for Ploughs, &c. — Best alcohol, 1 
gal.; gum sandarach, 2 lbs.; gum mastic, % lb.; place all in a tin 
can which admits of being corked; cork tight, shake it frequently, 
occasionally placing the can in hot water. When dissolved, it is 
ready for use. 

Fine Black Varnish for Coaches.— Melt in an iron pot, 
amber, 32 oz,; resin, 6 oz.; asphaltum, 6 oz.; drying linseed oil, 1 
pt. ; when partly cooled, add oil of turpentine, warmed, 1 pint. 

Mordant Varnish. — Dissolve 1 oz. mastic, 1 oz. sandarach, 
% oz. gum gamboge, and >4 oz. turpentine in 6 oz. spirits turpen- 
tine. One of the simplest mordants is that procured by dissolving 
a little honey in thick glue. It has the effect of greatly heighten- 
ing the color of the gold, and the leaf sticks extremely well. 

Changing Varnish.— To imitate Gold or Silver, &c. Put 
4 oz. best gum gamboge into 32 oz. spirits of turpentine; 4 oz. 
dragon's blood into 32 oz. spirits turpentine, and 1 oz. of annotto 
into 8 oz. spirits turpentine. Make the 3 three mixtures in differ- 
ent vessels. Keep them in a warm place, exposed to the sun as 
much as possible, for about 2 weeks, when they will be fit for use. 
Add. together such quantities of each liquor as the nature of the 
color you are desirous of obtaining will point out. 

Varnish, Transparent, for "Wood. — Best alcohol, 1 gal.; 
nice gum shell, 2% lbs. Flace the jug or bottle in a situation to 
keep it just a little warm, and it will dissolve quicker than if hot, 
or left cold. 

Patent Varnish for Wood or Canvas.— Take spirits of 
turpentine, lgal.; asphaltum, 2>£lbs.; put them into an iron kettle 
which will fit upon a stove, and dissolve the gum by heat. When 
dissolved and a little cool, acid copal varnish, 1 pt. ; and boiled lin- 
seed oil, 1 pt.; when cold it is ready for use. Perhaps a little lamp- 
black would make it a more perfect black. 



RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 299 

Beautiful Varnish for Violins, &c.— Rectified spirits of 
wine, y 2 gal.; add 6 oz. gum sandarach, 3 oz. gum mastic, and y 2 
pint turpentine varnish; put the above in a tin can by the stove, 
frequently shaking till well dissolved; strain, and keep for use. 
If you find it harder than you wish, thin with more turpentine- 
varnish. 

Crimson Stain for Musical Instruments.— Ground Brazil 
wood, 1 lb.; water, 3 quarts; cochineal, y 2 ounce; boil the Brazil 
with the water for an hour, strain, add the cochineal, boil gently 
for half an hour, when it will be fit for use. If you wish a scarlet 
tint, boil an ounce of saffron in a quart of water, and pass over the 
work before you stain it. 

Purple Stain.— Chipped logwood, 1 lb.; w T ater, 3 quarts; pearl- 
ash, 4 ounces; powdered indigo, 2 ounces. Boil the logwood in the 
water half an hour, add the pearl-ash and indigo, and when dis- 
solved you will have a beautiful purple. 

Green Stain.— Strong vinegar, 3 pints; best verdigris, 4 oz. 
ground fine; sap green, % ounce; mixed together. 

Black Stains for Wood. — 1. Drop a little sulphuric acid into 
a small quantity of water; brush over the wood, and hold it to 
the fire; it will be a fine black, and receive a good polish. 2. For 
a beautiful black on wood, nothing can exceed the black Japan 
mentioned under Tinsmith's Department. Apply two coats; after 
which, varnish and polish it. 3. To 1 gallon vinegar, add a quarter 
of a pound of iron-rust; let it stand for a week; then add a pound 
of dry lamp-black, and three quarters of a pound of copperas; 
stir it up for a couple of days. Lay on five or six coats with a 
sponge, allowing it to dry between each; polish with linseed oil and 
a soft woolen rag, and it will look like ebony. Incomparable for 
iron work, ships' guns, shot, &c. 4. Vinegar, y gallon; dry lamp- 
■ black, y 2 lb. ; iron-rust sifted, 3 lbs. ; mix, and let stand for a week. 
Lay three coats of this on hot, and then rub with linseed oil, and 
you will have a fine deep black. 5. Add to the above stain nut- 
galls, 1 oz.; logwood chips, y 2 lb.; copperas, y lb,; lay on three 
coats; oil well, and you will have a black stain that will stand any 
kind of weather, and is well adapted for ships' combings, &c. 6. 
Logwood chips, 1 lb. ; Brazil wood, ^ lb. ; bail for iy hours in one 
gallon ^vater. Brush the wood with this decoction while hot; make 
a decoction of nutgalls, by simmering gently, for three or four days, 
a quarter of a pound of the galls in 2 quarts water; give the wood 
three coats, and, while wet, lay on a solution of sulphate, of iron 
(2 oz. to a quart.) and, when dry, oil or varnish. 7. Give three 
coats with a solution of copper-filings in aquafortis, and repeatedly 
brush over with the logwood decoction until the greenness of the 
copper is destroyed. 8. Boil y lb. logwood chips in 2 quarts water; 
add an ounce of pearl-ash, ancl apply hot with a brush. Then take 
2 quarts of the logwood decoction, and y 2 oz. of verdigris, and the 
same of copperas; strain, and throw in y 2 lb. of iron-rust. Brush 
the work well with this, and oil. 



300 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 

Rose-wood Stain, Light Shade. — Equal parts of logwood and 
red-wood chips; boil well in water sufficient to make a strong stain; 
apply it to the furniture while hot, 2 or 3 coats, according to the 
depth of color desired. 

Rose Pink Stain and Varnish.— Put 1 oz. of potash in 1 qt. 
water, with red sanders, V/ 2 oz. ; extract the color from the wood, and 
strain; then add gum shellac, y 2 lb.; dissolve it by a brisk fire. 
Used upon logwood stain for rosewood imitation. 

Blue Stain for "Wood.— 1. Dissolve copper-filings in aqua- 
fortis, brush the wood with it, and then go over the work with a 
hot solution of pearlash (2 oz. to 1 pint water) till it assumes a 
perfectly blue color. 2. Boil 1 lb. of indigo, 2 lbs. wood, and 3 oz. 
alum, in 1 gallon water; brush well over until thoroughly stained. 

Imitation of Botany Bay "Wood.— Boil y 2 lb. of French berries 
(the unripe berries of the Bhamnus infectorius) in 2 quarts water 
till of a deep yellow, and, while boiling hot, give two or three coats 
to the work. If a deeper color is desired, give a coat of logwood 
decoction over the yellow. When nearly dry, form the grain with 
No. 8 black stain, used hot; and, when dry, rust and varnish. 

Mahogany Color.— "Dark.— 1. Boil y 2 lb. of madder and 2 
oz. logwood chips in a gallon of water, and brush well over while 
hot, when dry, go over the whole with pearlash solution, 2 drs. to 
the quart. 2." Put 2 oz. dragon's blood, bruised, into a quart of oil 
of turpentine; let the bottle stand in a warm place; shake fre- 
quently, and, when dissolvod, steep the work in the mixture. 

Box Wood Brown Stain.— Hold your work to the fire, that it 
may receive a gentle warmth; then take aquafortis, and, with a 
feather, pass it over the work till you find it change to a fine 
brown (always keeping it near the fire;) you may then varnish or 
polish it. 

Light Brown Red.— Boil y H>. madder and % lb. fustic in 1 
gal. water; brush over the work, when boiling hot, until properly 
stained. 2. The surface of the work being quite smooth, brush 
over with a weak solution of aquafortis, y 2 oz. to the pint; then 
finish with the following: Put ±y 2 oz. dragon's blood and 1 oz. 
soda, both well bruised, to 3 pints spirits of wine; let it stand in a 
warm place, shake frequently, strain, and lay on with a soft brush, 
repeating until of a proper color. Polish with linseed oil or var- 
nish. 

Purple.— Brush the work several times with the logwood de- 
coction used for No. 6 Black; and, when dry, give a coat of pearl- 
ash solution, 1 drachm to a quart; lay it on evenly. 

Red. —1. Boil 1 lb. Brazil wood and 1 oz. pearlash in 1 gallon 
water; and, while hot, brush over the work until of a proper'color. 
Dissolve 2 oz. alum in 1 quart water, and brush the solution over 
the work before it dries. 2. Take a gallon of the above stain, add 
2 oz. more pearlash; use hot, and brush over with the alum solu- 
tion. 3. Use a cold solution of archil, and brush over with the 
pearlash solution used for No. 1 dark mahogany. 



RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 301 

Ebony Stain.-— Infuse gall-nuts in vinegar wherein you have 
soaked rusty nails; then rub your wood with this; let it dry, polish 
and burnish. 

Bright Yellow Stain. — 1. Brush over with the tincture of 
turmeric. 2. Warm the work, and brush it over with weak aqua- 
fortis; varnish or oil as usual. 3. A very small bit of aloes put 
into the varnish will give a rich yellow color to the wood. 

Extra Black Stain for "Wood.— Pour 2 qts. boiling water 
over 1 oz. of powdered extract of logwood, and, when the solu- 
tion is effected, 1 dr. of yellow chromate of potash is added, and 
the whole well stirred. It is then ready for use as a wood-stain, or 
for writing ink. When rubbed on wood, it produces a pure black. 
Repeat with two, three, or four applications, till a deep black is 
produced, which acquires the highest beauty when polished or 
stained. 

Imitation of Mahogany. — Let the first coat of painting be 
white lead; the second, orange; and the last, burnt umber or 
sienna; imitating the veins according to your taste and practice. 

To Imitate Wainscot.— Let the first coat be white; the 
second, half white and half yellow; and the third, yellow ochre 
only; shadow with umber or sienna. 

To Imitate Satm Wood.— Take white for your first coating, 
light blue for the second, and dark blue or dark green for the 
third. 

Rosewood Stain, very Bright Shade. — Used Cold. — 
Take alcohol, 1 gal.; camwood, 2 oz.; set them in a warm place, 24 
hours; then add extract of logwood, 3 oz.; aquafortis, 1 oz.; and 
when dissolved it is ready for use; it makes a very bright ground, 
like the most beautiful rosewood; one, two, or more coats as you 
desire, over the whole surface. 

Varnish for Frames, Etc. — Lay the frames over with tin 
or silver foil by means of plaster of Paris, or cement of some kind, 
that the foil may be perfectly adherent to the wood; then apply 
your gold lacquer varnish, which is made as follows: ground tur- 
meric, 1 lb.; powdered gamboge, 1% ounces; powdered sandarach, 
3y 2 lbs. ; powdered shellac, % lb. ; spirits of wine, 2 gals. ; dissolve, 
and strain; then add turpentine varnish, 1 pt.; and it is ready for 
use. 

Cherry Stain.— Bain water, 3 qts.; annotto, 4 oz.; boil in 
a copper kettle till the annotto is dissolved, then put in a piece of 
potash the size of a walnut, keep it on the fire about half an hour 
longer, and it is ready to bottle for use. 

Black Walnut Stain. — New, very cheap, sinks deep, and 
very good imitation. Dissolve permanganate of potash in water; 
about 1 oz. to a pailful. Vary to suit the taste. If bought in 
quantities, this stain should not cost over 50 cents per barrel. 



302 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 

Miscellaneous Stains.— Yellow is produced by diluted ni- 
tric acid Red is produced by a solution of dragon's blood in 
spirits of wine. Black is produced by a strong solution of nitric 
acid. Green is produced by a solution of verdigris in nitric acid. 
Then dipped in a hot solution of pearlash produces a Blue stain. 
Purple is produced by a solution of sal-ammoniac in nitric acid. 

Finishing -with one Coat of Varnish. — Valuable Process. 
— Give the furniture a coat of boiled linseed oil, then immediately 
sprinkle dry starch upon it, and rub it in well with your hand, or 
a stiff brush, all over the surface; the starch absorbs the oil, and 
fills the pores of the wood completely. For black walnut, add a 
little burned umber to the starch; for cherry, a little Venetian 
red, &c, according to the color of the wood. Turned work can 
have it applied while in motion in the lathe. Furniture can after- 
wards be finished with only one coat of varnish. 

Polishes.— Carver's Polish.— White resin, 2 oz.; seed lac, 
2 oz. ; spirits of wine, 1 pt. Dissolve. It should be laid on warm. 
Avoid moisture and dampness when used. 

2. French Polish.— Gum shellac, loz.; gum arabic, yi oz.; 
gum copal, yi oz. Powder, and sift through a piece of muslin; put 
them in a closely corked bottle with 1 pt. spirits of wine, in a very 
warm situation, shaking every day till the gums are dissolved; 
then strain through muslin, and cork for use. 

3. Polish for Dark-Colored Woods.— Seed lac, 1 oz.; gum 
guaiacum, 2drs. ; dragon's blood, 2 drs.; gum mastic, 2 drs.; put in 
a bottle with 1 pt. spirits of wine, cork close, expose to a moderate 
heat till the gums are dissolved; strain into a bottle for use, with % 
gill of linseed oil; shake together. 

4. Water-Proof Polish — Gum benjamin, 2 oz. ; gum sandarach, 
X"oz.; gum anima, yi oz.; spirits of wine, 1 pt. Mix in a closely 
stopped bottle, and place either in a sand bath or in hot water till 
the gums are dissolved, then strain off the mixture, shake it up 
with a yi gill of the best clear poppy oil, and put it by for use. 

5. Finishing Polish. — Cum shellac, 2 drs.; gum benjamin, 2 
drs. ; put into y 2 pint of best rectified spirits of wine in a bottle 
closely corked, keep in a warm place, shaking frequently till the 
gums are dissolved. When cold, shake up with it two teaspoon- 
f ills of the best clear poppy oil. 

Polish for Removing Stains, Spots, and Mildew from 
Furniture. — Take of 98 per cent, alcohol, % pt. ; pulverized resin 
and gum shellac, of each, yi oz. Let these cut in the alcohol; then 
add linseed oil, y pt. ; shake well, and apply with a sponge, brush, 
or cotton flannel, or an old newspaper, rubbing it well after the ap- 
plication, which gives a nice polish. 

Polish for Reviving Old Furniture, Equal to the 
"Brother Jonathan." — Take alcohol, iy oz.; spirits of salts (mu- 
riatic acid), y 2 oz.; linseed oil, 8 oz.; best vinegar, y> pt.; and but- 
ter of antimony, \y 2 oz.; mix, putting in the vinegar last. 

Jet or Polish fer "Wood or Leather, Black, Red, or 
Blue. — Alcohol (98 per cent.), 1 pt. ; sealing wax, the color de- 
sired, 3 sticks; dissolve by heat, and have it warm when applied. 
A sponge is the best tc apply it with. 



RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 303 

Furniture Fillings. — I. Beeswax, spirits of turpentine and 
liaseed oil, equal parts; melt and cool. 2. Beeswax, four oz.; tur- 
pentine, 10 oz.; alkanet root, to color; melt and strain. 3. Bees- 
wax, 1 lb.; linseed oil, 5 oz.; alkanet root, one-half ounce; melt, add 
5 oz. of turpentine; strain and cool. 4. Beeswax, 4 oz; resin, 1 oz.; 
oil of turpentine, 2 oz.; Venetian red, to color. 

Furniture Polish.— Beeswax, y lb.; and a \i oz. of alkanet 
root; melt together in a pipkin until the former is well colored. 
Then add linseed oil and spirits of turpentine, of each y. a gill; 
strain through a piece of coarse muslin. 

French Polishes.— 1. Shellac, 3 lbs.; wood naphtha, 3 pts.; 
dissolve. 2. Shellac, 2 lbs.; powdered mastic and sandarach, of 
each, 1 oz. ; copal varnish, y 2 pt. ; spirits of wine, 1 gal. Digest in 
the cold till dissolved. 

Furniture Fillings. — 1. Turpentine, 1 pt. ; alkanet root, \ oz.; 
digest until sufficiently colored, then add beeswax, scraped small, 4 
oz. ; put the vessel into hot water, and stir till dissolved. If wanted 
pale, the alkanet root should be omitted. 2 ( White.) White wax, 
1 lb.; liquor of potassa, y gal.; boil to a proper consistence. 3. 
Beeswax, 1 lb.; soap, y lb.; pearlash, 3 oz. (dissolved in water, y 
gal., and strained,) boil as last. 4. Yellow wax, 16 parts; resin, 1 
part; alkanet root, 1 part; turpentine, 6 parts; linseed oil, 6 parts. 
First steep the alkanet in the oil with heat, and, when well colored, 
pour off the clear on the other ingredients, and again heat till all 
are dissolved. 

Furniture Cream.— Beeswax, 1 lb. ; soap, 4 oz. ; pearlash, 2 oz. ; 
soft water, 1 gal., boil together until mixed. 

Furniture Oils.— 1. Acetic acid, 2 dr.; oil of lavender, y, dr.; 
rectified spirit, 1 dr.; linseed oil, 4 oz. 2. Linseed oil, 1 pt. ; alkanet 
root, 2 oz.; heat, strain and add lac varnish, 1 oz. 3. Linseed oil, 
1 pt. ; rectified spirit, 2 oz. ; butter of antimony, 4 oz. 

Mosaic G-old Powder for Bronzing. — Melt 1 lb. tin in a 
crucible, and y, lb. of purified quicksilver to it; when this is 
cold, it is reduced to powder, and ground, with y lb. sal-ammoniac 
and 7 oz. flour of sulphur, till the whole is thoroughly mixed. They 
are then calcined in a matrass; and the sublimation of the other in- 
gredients leaves the tin converted into the mosaic gold powder 
which is found at the bottom of the glass. Remove any black or 
discolored particles. The sal-ammoniac used must be very white 
and clear, and the mercury of the utmost purity. When a deeper 
red is required, grind a very small quantity of red lead with the 
above materials. 

True Gold Powder.— Put some gold-leaf, with a little honey, 
or thick gum- water made with gum arabic, into an earthen mortar, 
and pound the mixture till the gold is reduced to very small parti- 



304 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 

cles; then wash out the honey or gum repeatedly with warm water, 
and the gold in powder will be left behind. When dry, it is fit for 



Dutch Gold Powder is made from Dutch gold-leaf, which is 
sold in books at a very low price. Treat in the manner described 
above for true gold powder. When this inferior powder is used, 
cover the gilding with a coat of clear varnish, otherwise it will soon 
lose its bright appearance. 

Copper Powder is prepared by dissolving filing or slips of cop- 
per with nitrous acid in a receiver. When the acid is saturated, 
the slips are to be removed; or, if filings be employed, the solution 
is to be poured off from what remains undissolved. Small bars are 
then put in, which will precipitate the copper powder from the 
saturated acid; and, the liquid being poured from the powder, this 
is to be washed clean of the crystals by repeated waters. 

General Directions for Bronzing. — The choice of the above 
powders is, of course, determined by the degree of brilliancy 
you wish to obtain. The powder is mixed witli strong gum-water 
or isinglass, and laid on with a brush or pencil; and, when not so 
dry as to have still a certain clamminess, a piece of soft leather 
wrapped round the finger is dipped in the powder, and rubbed over 
the work. When the work has been all covered with the bronze, it 
must be left to dry, and any loose powder then cleared away by a 
hair-pencil. 

The Bronzing of Plaster Casts is effected by giving them 
a coat of oil or size varnish, and when this is nearly dry applying 
with a dabber of cotton or a camel hair-pencil any of the metallic 
bronze powders; or the powder may be placed in a little bag of 
muslin, and dusted over the surface, and afterwards finished with a 
wad of linen. The surface must be afterwards varnished. 

Bronzing Iron. — The subject should be heated to a greater de- 
greee than the hand can bear, and German gold, mixed with a 
small quantity of spirit-of-wine varnish, spread over it with the 
pencil; should the iron be already polished, you must heat it well, 
and moisten it with a linen rag dipped in vinegar. 

French Burnished Gilding. — Encollage, or glue coat. — To 
a decoction of wormwood and garlic in water, strained through a 
cloth, a little common salt and some vinegar are added. This is 
mixed with as much good glue, and the mixture spread in a hot 
state with a brush of boar's hair. When plaster or marble is gilded, 
leave out the salt. The first glue-coating is made thinner than the 
second. 2. Whits preparation consists in covering the above sur- 
face with 8, 10, or 12 coats of Spanish white, mixed up with strong 
size; each well worked on with the brush. 3. Stop up the pores 
with thick whiting and glue, and smooth the surface with dog-skin. 
4. Polish the surface with pumice-stone and very cold water. 5. Re- 
touch the whole in a skilful manner. 6. Cleanse with a damp linen 
rag, and then a soft sponge. 7. Bub with a horse's tail (shave-grass) 



RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 305 

the parts to be yellowed, to make them softer. 8. Yellow with yeV 
low ochre carefully ground in water, and mixed with transparent 
colorless size. Use the thinner part of the mixture with a fine 
brush. 9. Next rub the work with shave-grass to remove any 
granular appearance. 10. Gold-water size consists of Armenian 
bole, 1 lb.; bloodstone (hematite), 2 oz.; and as much galena, each 
separately ground in water. Then mix all together with a spoonful 
of olive oil. This is tempered with a white sheep-skin glue, clear 
and well strained. Heat and apply three coats with a fine long- 
haired brush. 11. Rub with a clean, dry linen cloth, except the 
parts to be burnished, which are to receive other two coats of the 
gold size, tempered with glue. 12. The surface damped with cold 
water (iced in summer), has then the gold-leaf applied to it. Gild 
the hollow ground before the more prominent parts; water being 
dexterously applied by a soft brush, immediately behind the gold- 
leaf, before laying it down; removing any excess of water with a 
dry brush. 13. Burnish with bloodstone' 14. Next pass a thin 
coat of glue, slightly warmed, over the parts that are not to be bur- 
nished. 15. Next moisten any broken points with a brush, and 
apply bits of gold-leaf to them. 16. Apply the vermeil coat very 
lightly over the gold-leaf with a soft brush. It gives lustre and fire 
to the gold, and is made as follows: annotto, 2 oz.; gamboge, 1 oz.; 
vermilion, 1 oz.; dragon's blood, % oz.; salt of tartar, 2 oz.; 
saffron, 18grs.; boil in 2 English pints of water, over a slow fire, 
till it is reduced to a fourth; then pass the whole through silk or 
muslin sieve. 17. Next pass over the dead surfaces a second coat of 
deadening glue, hotter than the first. This finishes the work and 
gives it strength. 

Bronzing or Gilding Wood.— Pipe clay, 2 oz. ; Prussian blue, 
patent yellow, raw umber, lampblack, of each, 1 oz.: grind separ- 
ately with water on a stone, and as much of them as will make a 
good color put into a small vessel three-fourths full of size. The 
wood, being previously cleaned and smoothed, and coated with a 
mixture of clean size and lampblack, receives a new coating twice 
successively, with the above compound, having allowed the first 
to dry. Afterwards the bronze powder is to be laid on with a 
pencil, and the whole burnished or cleaned anew, observing to re- 
pair the parts which may be injured by this operation; next the 
work must be coated over" with a thin layer of Castile soap, which 
will take the glare off the burnishing; and afterwards be carefully 
rubbed with a woolen cloth. The superfluous powder may be 
rubbed off when dry. 

Bronze Powder of a pale gold color is produced from an alloy 
of I3v^ parts of copper, and 2% parts zinc, of a crimson metallic 
lustre from copper, of a paler color, copper, and a very little zinc; 
green bronze with a proportion of verdigris, of a fine orange 
color, by 14% parts copper and 1% zince; another orange color, 
13% parts copper and 2% zinc. The alloy is laminated into very 
fine leaves with careful annealing, and these are levigated into im- 
palpable powders, along with a film of fine oil, to prevent oxidize 
ment, and to favor the levigation. 



306 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 

Reviver for G-iit Frames.— White of eggs, 2 oz.; chloride of 
potash or soda, 1 oz.; mix well, blow off the dust from the frames; 
then go over them with a soft brush dipped in the mixture, and 
they will appear equal to new. 

Gilding on Wood.— To gild in oil, the wood after being pro- 
perly smoothed, is covered with a coat of gold size, made of drying 
linseed oil mixed with yellow ochre; when this has become so dry 
as to adhere to the fingers without soiling them, the gold leaf is 
laid on with great care and dexterity, and pressed down with 
cotton wool; places that have been missed are covered with small 
pieces of gold leaf, and when the whole is dry, the ragged bits are 
rubbed off with the cotton. This is by far the easiest mode of gild- 
ing: any other metallic leaves may be applied in a similar manner. 
Pale leaf gold has a greenish yellow color, and is an alloy of 
gold and silver. Dutch gold leaf is only copper leaf colored with 
the fumes of zinc ; being much cheaper than true gold leaf, it is 
very useful when large quantities of gilding are required in places 
where it can be defended from the weather, as it changes color if 
exposed to moisture; and it should be covered with varnish. Sil- 
ver leaf is prepared every way the same as gold leaf; but when 
applied should be kept well covered with varnish, otherwise it is 
liable to tarnish; a transparent yellow varnish will give it the ap- 
pearance of gold. Whenever gold is fixed by means of linseed oil, 
it will bear washing off, which burnished gold will not. 

Best Color for Boot, Shoe, and Harness Edge.— Alcohol, 

1 pint; tincture of iron, 1% oz.; extract logwood, 1 oz.; pulverized 
nutgalls, 1 oz.; soft water, % pint; sweet oil, % oz.; put this last 
into the alcohol before adding the water. Nothing can exceed the 
beautiful finish imparted to the leather by this preparation. The 
only objection is the cost. 

Cheap Color for the Edge.— Soft water, 1 gallon; extract log- 
wood, 1 oz.; boil till the extract is dissolved; remove from the fire, 
and add copperas, 2 oz . ; bi-chromate of potash and gum arabic, of 
each, y 2 oz.; all to be pulverized. 

Superior Edge Blacking.— Soft water, 5 gallons; bring to a 
boil, and add 8 oz. logwood extract, pulverized; boil 3 minutes, re- 
move from the fire, and stir in 2y 2 oz. gum arabic, 1 oz. bi-chromate 
of potash, and 80 grains prussiate of potash. 

For a small quantity of this, use water, 2 quarts; extract of log- 
wood, % oz.; gum arabic, 96 grains; bi-chromate of potash, 48 
grains; prussiate of potash, 8 grains. Boil the extract in the water 

2 minutes; remove from the fire, and stir in the others; and it is 
ready for use. 

For tanners' surface blacking, which is not required to take on a 
high polish, the gum arabic may be omitted. 

Sizing for Boots and Shoes in Treeing Out.— Water, 1 
quart; dissolve in it by heat, isingiass, 1 oz.; adding more water 



KECEIPTS FOE MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 307 

to replace loss by evaporation; when dissolved, add starch, 6 oz.; 
extract of logwood, beeswax, and tallow, of each 2 oz. Bub the 
starch up first by pouring on sufficient boiling water for that pur- 
pose. It makes boots and shoes soft and pliable, and gives a splen- 
did appearance to old stock on the shelves. 

Black Varnish for the Edge.— Take 98 per cent, alcohol. 1 
pint; shellac, 3 oz.; resin, 2 oz.; pine turpentine, 1 oz.; lamp-black, 
i^oz.; mix; and when the gums are all cut, it is ready for use. 
This preparation makes a most splendid appearance when applied 
to boot, shoe, or harness edge, and is equally applicable to cloth or 
wood, where a gloss is required after being painted. 

Best Harness Varnish Extant. — Alcohol, 1 gallon; white tur- 
pentine, V/ 2 lbs. ; gum shellac, V/ 2 lbs.; Venice turpentine, 1 gill. 
Let them stand by the stove till the gums are dissolved, then add 
sweet oil, 1 gill; and color if you wish it with lamp-black, 2 oz. 
This will not crack like the old varnish. 

Another.— Isinglass, or gelatine, and indigo, of each, y£ oz. ; 
logwood, 4oz.; soft soap, 2 oz ; glue, 4 oz.; vinegar, 1 pint; mix by 
heat, and strain. 

Brilliant French Varnish for Leather.— Spirit of wine, 
^ pint; vinegar, 5 pints; gum senega! in powder, y 2 lb.; loaf sugar, 
6 oz. ; powdered galls, 2 oz. ; green copperas, 4 oz. Dissolve the 
gum and sugar in the water; strain, and put on a slow fire, but 
don't boil; now put in the galls, copperas, and the alcohol; stir well 
for five minutes; set off; and when nearly cool strain through flan- 
nel, and bottle for use. It is applied with a pencil brush. Most 
superior. 

Liquid Japan for Leather.— Molasses, 8 lbs. ; lamp-black, 1 lb. ; 
sweet oil, 1 lb. ; gum arabic, 1 lb. ; isinglass, 1 lb. Mix well in 32 
lbs. water; apply heat; when cool, add 1 quart alcohol; an ox's gall 
will improve it. 

Waterproof Oil Blacking.— Camphene, 1 pint; add all the 
India rubber it will dissolve; currier's oil, 1 pint; tallow, 7 lbs.- 
lamp-black, 2 oz. Mix thoroughly by heat. 

Shoemaker's Heel Ball.— Beeswax, 8 oz.; tallow, 1 oz.- melt, 
and add powdered gum arabic, 1 oz., and lamp-black to color. 

Cement for Leather or Rubber Soles and Leather Belt- 
ing.— Gutta percha, 1 lb.; India rubber, 4 oz.; pitch, 2 oz.; shellac 
1 oz. ; oil, 2 oz. ; melt and use hot. 

Oil Paste Blacking.— Ivory black, 4 lbs.; molasses, 3 lbs.: 
sweet oil, 1 lb.; oil vitriol, 3 lbs.; mix, and put in tins. 

To Dye Leather Blue, Red, or Purple.— For red. steep it in 
alum water, then pass it through a warm decoction of Brazil wood- 
blue, steep in an indigo vat; purple, steep the skins in alum water,' 
then put it m a warm decoction of logwood. 

Gold Varnish.— Turmeric, 1 drachm; gamboge, 1 drachm; tur- 
pentine, 2 pints; shellac, 5 oz.; sandarach, 5 oz.; dragon's blood, 8 



308 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 

drachms; thin mastic varnish, 8 oz. ; digest with occasional agitation 
for fourteen days; then set aside to fine, and pour off the clear. 

Grain Black for Harness Leather.— First stain in tallow; 
then take spirits turpentine, 1 pint; cream of tartar, 1 oz.; soda, 1 
oz. ; gum shellac, y 2 oz. ; thick paste reduced thin, 2 quarts. Mix 
well. This will finish 12 sides. 



Stains for Wood and Leather.— Red.— Brazil wood, 11 parts; 
alum, 4 parts; water, 85 parts. Boil. 

Blue.— Logwood, 7 parts; blue vitriol, 1 part; water, 22 pprts- 
Boil. 

Black.— Logwood, 9 parts; sulphate of iron, 1 part; water, 25 
parts. Boil. 

Green.— Yerdigris, 1 part; vinegar, 3 parts. Dissolve. 

Yellow.— French berries, 7 parts; water, 10 parts; alum, 1 part. 
Boil. 

Purple.— Logwood, 11 parts; alum, 3 parts; water, 29 parts. 
Boil. 



Deer Skins.— Tanning and Buffing for Gloves.— For 
each skin take a bucket of water, and put into it 1 quart of lime; 
let the skin or skins lie in from 3 to 4 days; then rinse in clean 
water, hair, and grain; then soak them in cold water to get out the 
glue; now scour or pound in good soap-suds for half an hour; after 
which take white vitriol, alum, and salt, 1 tablespoon of each to a 
skin; these will be dissolved in sufficient water to cover the skin, 
and remain in it for 24 hours; wring out as dry as convenient, and 
spread on with a brush % pint of currier's oil, and hang in the sun 
about two days; after which you will scour out the oil with soap- 
suds, and hang out again until perfectly dry; then pull and work 
them until they are soft; and if a reasonable time does not make 
them soft, scour in suds again as before, until complete. The oil 
may be saved by pouring or taking it from the top of the suds, if 
left standing for a short time. The buff color is given by spreading 
yellow ochre evenly over the surface of the skin, when finished, 
rubbing it in well with a brush. 

Tanning with Acid.— After having removed the hair, scouring, 
soaking, and pounding in the suds, &c, as in the last recipe, in 
place of the white vitriol, alum, and salt, as there mentioned, take 
oil of vitriol (sulphuric acid,) and water, equal parts of each, and 
thoroughly wet the flesh side of the skin with it, by means of a 
sponge or cloth upon a stick; then folding up the skiri, letting it lie 
for 20 minutes only, having ready a solution of sal-soda and water, 
say 1 lb. to a bucket of water, and soak the skin or skins in that 
for two hours, when you will wash in clean water, and apply a little 
dry salt, letting lie in the salt over night, or that length of time; 
then remove the flesh with a blunt knife, or, if doing business on a 
large scale, by means of the regular beam and flesh-knife; when 
dry or nearly so, soften by pulling and rubbing with the hands, and 
also with a piece of pumice-stone. This, of course, is the quickest 



RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 309 

way of tanning, and by only wetting the skins with the acid, and 
soaking them out in 20 minutes, they are not rotted. 

Another Method.— Oil of vitriol, y 2 oz.; salt, 1 teacup; milk 
sufficient to handsomely cover the skin, not exceeding 3 qts., warm 
the milk, then add the salt and vitriol; stir the skin in the liquid 
40 minutes, keeping it warm; then dry, and work it as directed in 
No. 4. 

Liquid Red.— Channellers will find that no better or richer 
color for their purposes can be got than the red ink described under 
the Grocer's Department, diluted to the required shade. For 
color for the bottoms of shoes use tincture of red sanders. 

Bridle Stain.— Skimmed milk, 1 pint; spirits of salts, % oz.; 
spts. of red lavender, y 2 oz.; gum arabic, 1 oz.; and the juice of 2 
lemons; mix well together, and cork for use; apply with a a sponge; 
when dry, polish with a brush or a piece of flannel. If wished 
paler, put in less red lavender. 

Process of Tanning Calf, Kip, and Harness Leather in 
from Six to Thirty Days.— For a 12 lb. calf skin, take 3 lbs. of 
terra japonica, common salt 2 lbs.; adum, 1 lb.; put them into a 
copper kettle with sufficient water to dissolve the whole by boiling. 
The skin will be limed, haired, and treated every way as for the 
old process, when it will be put it into a vessel with sufficient water 
to cover it, at which time you will put in 1 pint of the composition 
stirring it well, adding the same amount each night and morning 
for 3 days, when you will add the whole, handling 2 or 3 times daily 
all the time tanning; you can continue to use the tanning liquid by 
adding half the quantity each time, by keeping these proportions for 
any amount. If you desire to give a bark color to the leather, you 
wiil put in 1 lb. of Sicily sumac; kip skins will require about 20 
days, light house hides for harness 30 days, calf skins from 6 to 10 
days at most. 

To Tan Raw Hide.— When taken from the animal, spread it 
flesh side up; then put 2 parts of saltpetre and alum combined, 
make it fine, sprinkle it evenly over the surface, roll it up, let it 
alone a few days till dissolved; then takeoff what flesh remains, 
and nail the skin to the side of a barn in the sun ; stretch tight, to 
make it soft like harness leather, put neat's foot oil on it, fasten it 
up in the sun again; then rub out all the oil you can with a wedge- 
shaped stick, and it is tanned with the hair on. 

French Finish for Leather.— Take a common wooden pail- 
ful of scraps (the legs and pates of calf skins are best), and put a 
handful each of salt and alum upon them, and let them stand 3 
days; then boil them until they get a thick paste; in using, you 
will warm it, and in the first application put a little tallow with it, 
and for the second time a little soft soap, and use it in the regular 
way of finishing, and your leather will be soft and pliable, like 
French leather. 

French Patent Leather.— Work into the skin with appro- 
priate tools 3 or 4 successive coatings of drying varnish, made by 



310 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 

boiling linseed oil with white lead and litharge, in the proportion of 
1 lb. of each of the latter to 1 gal. of the former, and adding a 
portion of chalk or ochre, each coating being thoroughly dried 
before the application of the rest. Ivory black is then substituted 
for the chalk or ochre, the varnish thinned with spirits of turpentine, 
and five additional applications made in the same manner as before, 
except that it is put on thin and not worked in. The leather is 
rubbed down with pumice stone, in powder, and then placed in a 
room at 90 degrees, out of the way of dust. The last varnish is 
prepared by boiling y 2 lb. of asphaltum with 10 lbs. of the drying 
oil used in the first stage of the process, and then stirring in 5 lbs. 
copal varnish and 10 lbs. of turpentine. It must have 1 month's age 
before using. 



Cheap Tanning without Bark or Mineral Astringents. 

— The astringent liquor is composed of water, 17 gals.; Aleppo 
galls, X A lb.; Bengal catechu, \y 2 oz. and 5 lbs. of tormentil, or 
septfoil root. Powder the ingredients, and boil in the water 1 hour; 
when cool, put in the skins (which must be prepared by being 
plunged into a preparation of bran and water for 2 days pre- 
viously) ; handle them frequently during the first 3 days, let them 
alone the next 3 days, then handle 3 or 4 times in one day; let 
them lie undisturbed for 25 days more, when the process will be 
complete. 

Canadian Process.— The Canadians make 4 liquors in using 
the japonica. 

The First liquor is made by dissolving, for 20 sides of upper, 
15 lbs. of terra japonica in sufficient water to cover the upper 
being tanned. The Second liquor contains the same amount of 
japonica, and 8 lbs. of saltpetre also. The Third contains 20 lbs. 
of japonica, and 4% lbs. of alum. The Fourth liquor contains 
only 15 lbs. of japonica, and 1% lbs. of sulphuric acid; and the 
leather remains 4 days in each liquor for upper; and for sole the 
quantities and time are both doubled. They count 50 calf skins in 
place of 20 sides of upper, but let them lie in each liquor only 3 
days. 



Fifty Dollar Recipe for Tanning Fur and Other Skins. 

— Remove the legs and useless parts, soak the skin soft, and then 
remove the fleshy substances, and soak it in warm water one hour. 
Now take for each skin borax, saltpetre, and Glauber-salt, of each 
34 oz. and dissolve or wet with soft water sufficient to allow it to be 
spread on the flesh side of the skin. Put it on with a brush, thickest 
in centre or the thickest part of the skin, and double the skin together, 
flesh side in; keeping it in a cool place for 24 hours, not allowing it 
to freeze. Then wash the skin clean, and take sal-soda, 1 bz.; 
borax, y 2 oz.; refined soap, 2 oz.; melt them slowly together, 
being careful not to allow them to boil, and apply the mixture to 
the flesh side as at first. Boil up again, and keep in a warm place 
for 24 hours; then wash the skin clean again, as above, and have 
saleratus, 2 oz.: dissolved in hot rain water sufficient to well 



RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 311 

saturate the skin; then take alum, 4 oz.; salt, 8 oz.; and dissolve 
also in hot rain water; when sufficiently cool to allow the handling 
of it without scalding, put in the skin for 12 hours; then wring out 
the water, and hang up for 12 hours more to dry. Kepeat this last 
soaking and drying two or three times, according to the desired 
softness of the skin when finished. Lastly, finish by pulling and 
working, and finally by rubbing with a piece of pumice stone and 
fine sand paper. This works like a charm on sheep skins, fur 
skins, dog, wolf, bear skins, &c. 

French Polish or Dressing for Leather.— Mix 2 pints best 
vinegar with 1 pt. soft water; stir into it \i lb. glue, broken up, y 2 
lb. logwood chips, \i oz. of finely powdered indigo, \i oz. of the 
best soft soap, % oz. of isinglass; put the mixture over the fire, and 
let it boil ten minutes or more; then strain, bottle and cork. When 
cold, it is fit for use. Apply with a sponge. 

Currier's Size.— Take of sizing, 1 qt.; soft soap, 1 gill; stuffing, 
1 gill; sweet milk, y pt. ; boil the sizing in water to a proper con- 
sistence, strain, and add the other ingredients; and when tho- 
roughly mixed, it is ready for use. 

Currier's Paste.— First Coat.— Take of water, 2 qts.; flour, 
y% pint; Castile soap, 1 oz.: make into paste. Second Coat.— Take 
of first paste, y^ pt. ; gum tragacanth, 1 gill; water, 1 pt.; mix all 
together. This will finish eighteen sides of upper. 

Currier's Skirting.— This is for finishing skirting and the flesh 
of harness leather, in imitation of oak tanning. Take of chrome 
yellow, y 2 lb.; yellow ochre, 1 lb.; cream of tartar, 1 oz.; soda, y 
oz. ; paste, 5 qts. ; mix well. This will finish twelve sides. 

Skirting. — For the grain to imitate oak tan. Take of chrome 
yellow, y 2 lb. ; yellow ochre, y 2 lb. ; cream of tartar, 1 oz. ; soda, 1 
oz.; paste, 2 qts.; spirits of turpentine, 1 pt.; mix well. This will 
finish twelve sides. 

Dyes for Leather.— Blue.— For each skin, take 1 oz. of in- 
digo, put it into boiling water, and let it stand one night; then 
warm it a little, and with a brush smear the skin twice over, and 
finish the same as the red. 

Ked. — After the skin has been properly prepared with sheep, 
pigs' dung, &c, then take strong alum water, and sponge over 
your skin; when dry, boil a strong gall liquor (it cannot be too 
strong) ; then boil a strong Brazil wood liquor (the stronger the 
better); take a sponge, dip it into your liquor, and sponge" it over 
your skin; repeat this till it comes 'to a full red. To finish your 
skin, take the white of eggs, and a little gum dragon, mix the two 
together in half a gill of water, sponge over your skin, and, when 
dry, polish off. 

Yellow. — 1, Infuse quercitron bark in vinegar, in which put a 
little alum, and brush over your skins with the infusion; finish the 
same as the red. 2. Take 1 pt. of whisky, 4 oz. turmeric; mix them 
well together; when settled sponge your skins over, and finish as 
above. 

Black. — Put your skin on a clean board, sponge it over with gall 
and sumach liquors, strong; then take a strong logwood liquor, 
sponge it over three or four times; then take a little copperas, mix 



312 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 

it in the logwood liquor; sponge it over your skin, and finish it the 
same as the red. 

Purple.— First sponge with the alum liquor strong, then with 
logwood liquor strong; or mix them both, and boil them, and sponge 
with the liquor, finish the same as the red. The pleasing hues of 
yellow, brown, or tan color, are readily imparted to leather by the 
following simple process: Steep saffron in boiling water for a 
number of hours, wet a sponge or soft brush in the liquor, and 
with it smear the leather. The quantity of saffron, as well as of 
water, will, of course, depend on how much dye may be wanted, 
and their relative proportions to the depth of color required. 

To Marble Books or Paper.— Marbling of books or paper 
is performed thus: Dissolve four ounces of gum arabic in two quarts 
of fair water; then provide several colors mixed with water in pots 
or shells, and with pencils peculiar to each color; sprinkle them by 
way of intermixture upon the gum water, which must be put into 
a trough, or some broad vessel; then, with a stick, curl them, or 
draw them out in streaks to as much variety as may be done. 
Having done this, hold your book or books close together, and only 
dip the edges in, on the top of the water and colors, very lightly; 
which done, take them off, and the plain impression of the colors, 
in mixture, will be upon the leaves; doing as well the ends as 
the front of the book in like manner, and afterwards glazing the 
colors. 

Bookbinder's Varnish.— Shellac, eight parts; gum benzoin, 

3 parts; gum mastic, two parts; bruise, and digest in alcohol, 
forty-eight parts; oil of lavender, one-half part. Or digest 
shellac, four parts; gum mastic, two parts; gum dammer and whit6 
turpentine, of each, one part; with alcohol'^ 95 per cent.,) twenty^ 
eight parts. 

Red Sprinkle for Bookbinder's Red.— Brazil wood (ground,) 

4 parts; alum, 1 part; vinegar, 4 parts; water, 4 parts. Boil until 
reduced to 7 parts, then add a quantity of loaf sugar and gum; 
bottle for use. 

Blue.— Strong sulphuric acid, 8 oz.; Spanish indigo, powdered, 
2 oz.; mix in a bottle that will hold a quart, and place it in a warm 
bath to promote solution. For use, dilute a little to the required 
color in a tea-cup. 

Black. — No better black can be procured than that made by the 
receipt for surface blacking, in this work, which see. 

Orange Color. — Ground Brazil wood, 16 parts; annotto, 4 parts; 
alum, sugar, and gum arabic, each 1 part; water, 70 parts; boil, 
strain, and bottle. 

Purple.— Logwood chips, 4 parts; powdered alum, 1 part; soft 
water, 24 parts; boil until reduced to 16 parts, and bottle for use. 

Green. — French berries, 1 part; soft water, 8 parts. Boil and 
add a little powdered alum; then bring it to the required shade of 
green by adding liquid blue. 

Brown.— Logwood chips, 1 part; annotto, 1 part; boil in water, 
6 parts; if too light, add a piece of copperas the size of a pea. 

Tree Marble.— A marble in the form of trees may be done by 



RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 313 

bending the boards a little on the centre, using the same method as 
the common marble, having the covers previously prepared. The 
end of a candle may be rubbed on different parts of the board to 
form knots. 

Rice-Marble.— Color the cover with spirits of wine and turmeric, 
then place on rice in a regular manner, throw on a very fine 
sprinkle of copperas water till the cover is nearly black, and let it 
remain till dry. The cover may be spotted with the red liquid or 
potash water, very freely, before the rice is thrown off the boards. 

Spotted Marble for Books, etc. — After the fore-edge of the 
book is cut, let it remain in the pres^, and throw on linseeds in a 
regular manner, sprinkle the edge with any dark color till the paper 
is covered, then shake off the seeds. Various colors may be used; 
the edge may be colored with yellow or red before throwing on the 
seeds, and sprinkling with blue. The seeds will make a fine fancy 
edge when placed very thick on different parts, with a few slightly 
thrown on the spaces between. 

Japan Coloring for Leather, Book-covers, etc.— After the 
book is covered and dry, color the cover with potash water mixed 
with a little paste; give two good coats of Brazil wash, and glaze it; 
put the book between the hands, allowing the boards to slope a 
little; dash on copperas water, then with a sponge full of red liquid 
press out on the back and on different parts large drops, which will 
run down each board and make a fine shaded red; when the cover 
is dry, wash it over two or three times with Brazil wash to give it a 
brighter color. See the various dyes for leather under that head. 

To make Paper into Parchment. — To produce this transforma- 
tion, take unsized paper and plunge it into a solution of two parti 
of concentrated sulphuric acid combined with 1 part water; with- 
draw it immediately, and wash it in clean water, and the change is 
complete. It is now fit for writing; for the acid supplies the want 
of size, and it becomes so strong that a strip 2 or 3 inches wide will 
bear from 60 to 80 lbs. weight, while a like striu of parchment will 
bear only about 25 lbs. 

Best Cement for Aquaria.— It is the same as that used in con- 
structing the tanks of the Zoological Gardens, London. One part, 
by measure, say a gill of litharge; 1 gill of plaster of Paris; 1 gill of 
dry, white sand; y z of a gill of finely powdered resin. Sift, and 
keep corked tight until required for use, when it is to be made into 
a putty by mixing in boiled oil (linseed) with a little patent drier 
added. Never use it after it has been mixed (that is, with the oil) 
over fifteen hours. This cement can be used for marine as well as 
fresh- water aquaria, as it resists the action of salt water. The tank 
can be used immediately, but it is best to give it three or four hours 
to dry. 

Horn in Imitation of Tortoise Shell.— First steam and then 
press the horn into proper shapes, and afterwards lay the following 
mixture on with a small brush, in imitation of the mottle of tortoise- 
shell: Take equal parts of quiek-lime and litharge, and mix with 
strong soap-lees; let this remain until it is thoroughly dry; brush 
off, and repeat two or three times if necessary. Such parts as are 
required to be of a reddish brown should be covered with a mixture 
of whiting and the stain. 
22 



314 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 

Dyes for Ivory, Horn, and Bone. —Black.— 1. Lay the articles 
for several hours in a strong solution of nitrate of silver, and ex- 
pose to the light. 2. Boil the article for some time in a strained 
decoction of logwood, and then steep it in a solution of per-sulphate 
or acetate of iron. 3. Immerse frequently in ink until of sufficient 
depth of color. 

Blue.— 1. Immerse for some time in a dilute solution of sulphate 
of indigo, partly saturated with potash, and it will be fully stained. 
2. Steep in a strong solution of sulphate of copper. 

Green. — 1. Dip blue-stained articles for a short time in nitro- 
hydrochlorate of tin, and then in a hot decoction of fustic. 2. Boil 
in a solution of verdigris in vinegar until the desired color is 
obtained. 

Red. — 1. Dip the articles first in a tin mordant, used in dyeing, 
and then plunge into a hot decoction of Brazil wood — half a pound 
to a gallon of water — or cochineal. 2. Steep in red ink till suffi- 
ciently stained. 

Scarlet. — Use lac-dye instead of the preceding. 

Violet.— Dip in the tin mordant, and then immerse in a decoc- 
tion of logwood. 

Yellow. — Boil the articles in a solution of alum, 1 lb. to % a 
gallon, then immerse for half an hour in the following mixture: 
Take a y 2 lb. of turmeric, and a \i lb. of pearlash; boil in 1 gal. 
water: when taken from this, the bone must be again dipped in the 
alum solution. 

Etching Fluid for Ivory.— Take dilute sulphuric acid, dilute 
muriatic acid, equal parts: mix. For etching varnish take white 
wax, 2 parts; tears of mastic, 2 parts: mix. 

To Gild Ivory. — Immerse it in a solution of nitio-muriate of 
gold, and then expose it to hydrogen gas while damp. Wash it 
afterwards in clean water. 

To Soften Ivory. — In 3 oz. spirits of nitre, and 15 oz. of spring 
water, mixed together, put your ivory to soak; and in three or four 
days it will obey your fingers. 

To Whiten Ivory. Slack some lime in water; put your ivory 

in that water, after being decanted from the grounds, and boil it 
till it looks quite white. To polish it afterwards, set it in the 
turner's wheel; and, after having worked, take rushes and pumice 
stones, subtile powder, with water, and rub it till it looks perfectly 
smooth. Next to that, heat it by turning it against a piece of linen 
or sheepskin leather; and, when hot, rub it over with a little 
whitening diluted in oil of olive; then, with a little dry whitening 
alone; finally with a piece of soft white rag. When all this is per- 
formed as directed, the ivory will look very white. 

Another Way to Bleach Ivory. Take 2 handfuls of lime, 

slake it by sprinkling it with water; then add 3 pints of water, and 
stir the whole together; let it settle ten minutes, and pour the water 
into a pan for your purpose. Then take your ivory and steep it in 
the lime-water for 24 hours, after which, boil it in a strong aluin- 
water for 1 hour, and dry it in the air. 



RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 315 

To Cut and Polish Marble.— The marble saw is a thin plate 
of soft iron, continually supplied, during its sawing motion, with 
water and the sharpest sand. The sawing of moderate pieces is 
performed by hand; but that of large slabs is most economically 
done by a proper mill. The first substance used in the polishing 
process is the sharpest sand, which must be worked with till the 
surface becomes perfectly flat. Then a second, and even a third 
sand, of increasing fineness is to be applied. The next substance 
is emery, of progressive degrees of fineness; after which, tripoli is 
employed; and the last polish is given with tin putty. The body 
with which the sand is rubbed upon the marble is usually a plate 
of iron; but, for the subsequent process, a plate of lead is used, 
with fine sand and emery. The polishing rubbers are coarse linen 
cloths, or bagging, wedged tight into an iron planing tool. In 
every step of the operation, a constant trickling supply of water is 
required. 

Alabaster, Marble, or Stone may be stained of a yellow, red, 
green, blue, purple, black, or any of the compound colors, by the 
stains used for wood. 

Powerful Cement for Broken Marble.— Take gum Arabic, 1 
lb. ; make into a thick mucilage; add to it powdered plaster of Paris, 
iy 2 lbs.; sifted quick-lime, 5 oz.; mix well; heat the marble, and 
apply the mixture. 

Seven Colors for Staining Marble. — It is necessary to heat 
the marble hot, but not so hot as to injure it, the proper heat being 
that at which the colors nearly boil. Blue. — Alkaline indigo dye, 
or turnsole with alkali. 

Eed.— Dragon's blood in spirits of wine. 

Yellow. — Gamboge in spirits of wine. 

Gold Color. — Sal-ammoniac, sulphate of zinc, and verdigris, 
equal parts. 

Green. — Sap green, in spirits of potash. 

Brown. — Tincture of logwood. 

Crimson.— Alkanet root in turpentine. Marble may be veined 
according to taste. To stain marble well is a difficult operation. 

Perpetual Ink for Tombstones, Etc. Pitch, 11 lbs. ; lamp- 
black, 1 lb.; turpentine sufficient; mix with heat. 

To Clean Old Marble.— Take a bullock's gall, 1 gill of soap 
lees, half a gill of turpentine; make into a paste with pipe-clay, 
apply it to the marble; let it dry a clay or two, then rub it off, and 
it will appear equal to new; if very dirty, repeat the application. 

To Remove Grease. Aqua ammonia, 2 oz.; soft water, 1 qt; 

saltpetre, 1 teaspoonful; shaving soap in shavings, 1 oz.; mix all 
together; dissolve the soap well, and any grease or dirt that cannot 
be removed with this preparation nothing else need be tried for it. 

To Clean Marble.— Take two parts of common soda, 1 part 
pumice stone, and 1 part of finely powdered chalk; sift it through 
a fine sieve, and mix it with water; then rub it well all over the 
marble, and the stains will be removed; then wash the marble over 
with soap and water, and it will be as clean as it was at first. 



f 



316 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 

To make a Chemical Barometer.— Take a long, narrow bottle, 
and put into it 2% drs. of camphor; spirits of wine, 11 drs. When 
the camphor is dissolved, add to it the following mixture: Water, 9 
drs. ; saltpetre, 38 grs. ; sal-ammoniac, 38 grs. Dissolve these salts 
in the water prior to mixing with the camphorated spirit; then 
shake all well together, cork the bottle well, wax the top, but after- 
wards make a very small aperture in the cork with a red-hot nee- 
dle. By observing the different appearances which the materials 
assume as the weather changes, it becomes an excellent prognostic 
$ator of a coming storm or of a sunny sky. 

Waterproofing for Clothing.— Boiled oil, 15 lbs.; beeswax, 1 
lb.; ground litharge, 13 lbs.; mix, and apply with a brush to the 
article, previously stretching against a wall or on a table, previously 
well washing and drying each article before applying the com- 
position. 

To Renew Old Silks.— Unravel and put them in a tub, cover 
them with cold water, let them remain one hour; dip them up and 
down, but do not wring; hang up to drain, and iron while very 
damp, and it will look beautiful. 

Potter's Invisible Waterproofing for Clothing. — Imbue 
the cloth on the wrong side with a solution of isinglass, alum, 
and soap dissolved in water, forming an emulsion of a milky thick- 
ness; apply with a brush, rubbing in well. When dry, it is brushed 
on the wrong side against the grain, and then gone over with a 
brush dipped in water; afterwards brushed down smooth. 

To raise a Nap on Cloth.— Clean the article, well; soak it in 
cold water for half an hour; put it on a board, and rub the thread- 
bare parts with a half-worn hatter's card filled with flocks, or with 
a teazle or a prickly thistle until a nap is raised; then lay the nap 
the right way with a hatter's brush, and hang up to dry. 

Black Reviver for Cloth. — Bruised galls, 1 lb.; logwood, 2 
lbs.; green vitriol, 34 lb.; water, 5 quarts; boil two hours; strain, and 
it is ready for use. 

Trapper's and Angler's Secret for Game and Fish.— A 
few drops of oil of anise, or oil rhodium, on any trapper's bait, will 
entice any wild animal into the snare trap. India cockle mixed 
with flour dough, and sprinkled on the surface of still water, will 
intoxicate fish, render them insensible; when coming up to the sur- 
face, they can be lifted into a tub of fresh water to revive them, 
when they may be used without fear. 

Easy Method of Preventing Moths in Purs or Woolens. — 

Sprinkle the furs or woolen stuffs, as well as the drawers or boxes 
in which they are kept, with spirits of turpentine, the unpleasant 
scent of which will speedily evaporate on exposure of the stuffs to 
the air. Some persons place sheets of paper, moistened with spirits 
of turpentine, over, under, or between pieces of cloth, &c, and find 
it a very effectual method. Many woolen drapers put bits of cam- 
phor, the size of a nutmeg, in papers, on different parts of the 
shelves in their shops; and as they brush their cloths every two, 



RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 317 

three, or four months, this keeps them free from moths; and this 
should be done in boxes where furs, &c., are put. A tallow candle 
is frequently put within each muff when laid by. 

Clothing Renovator.— Soft water, 1 gal.; make a strong decoc- 
tion of logwood by boiling the extract with the water. Strain; 
when cool, add 2 oz.; gum arabic in powder; bottle, cork well, and 
set aside for use; clean the coat well from grease and dirt, and apply 
the above liquid with a sponge evenly. Dilute to suit the color, 
and hang in the shade to dry; afterwards brush the nap smooth, 
and it will look like new. 

"Waterproofing for Porous Cloth.— Dissolve 1"% lbs. alum 
In 4 gals, water; dissolve also, in a separate vessel the same weight 
of acetate of lead in the same quantity of water. When both are 
well dissolved, mix the solutions together; and, when the sulphate 
of lead resulting from this mixture has been precipitated to the 
bottom of the vessel in the form of a powder, pour off the solution, 
and plunge into it the fabric to be rendered waterproof. Wash 
and rub it well during a few minutes, and hang it in the air to dry. 

/ How to Write on Glass in the Sun. — Dissolve chalk in aqua 
/ fortis to the consistency of milk, and add to that a strong solu- 
/ tion of silver. Keep this in a glass decanter well stopped. Then 
cut out from a paper the letters you would have appear, and paste 
the paper on the decanter or jar, which you are to place in the sun 
in such a manner that its rays may pass through the spaces cut out 
of the paper, and fall on the surface of the liquor. The part of the 
glass through which the rays pass will turn black, while that under 
the paper will remain white. Do not shake the bottle during the 
operation. Used for lettering jars. 

To Transfer Prints, Etc., to Glass.— Take of gum sandararm, \ 
; 4 oz.; mastic, 1 oz.; Venice turpentine, 1 oz.; alcohol, 15 oz. Digest 
f in a bottle, frequently shaking, and it is ready for use. Directions: 
Use, if possible, good plate -glass of the size of the picture to be 
transferred, go over it with the above varnish, beginning at one 
side, press down the picture firmly and evenly as you proceed, so 
that no air can possibly lodge between; put aside, and let it dry per- 
fectly, then moisten the paper cautiously with water, and remove 
it piece-meal by rubbing carefully with the fingers; if managed 
nicely, a complete transfer of the picture to the glass will be 
effected. 

Paper for Photographing. — Wash the paper with a solution 
of nitrate of silver, 5 grs.; distilled water, y 2 oz.; dry the paper, 
and wash it with iodide of potassium, 5 grs.; distilled water, % oz.; 
dry with a gentle heat; repeat the wash with the silver solution; 
and, when dry, the paper is ready for use. The sensitive surface 
is an iodide ol silver, and is easily affected by light. 

How to Photograph on Glass.— Take dry saltpetre, y 2 oz.; 
strong oil vitriol, % oz.; mix in a tumbler, add 20 grains of dry cot- 
ton wool, stir with a glass rod five minutes, remove the cotton, and 



318 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 

wash from all traces of the acid in four or five waters; then dry 
carefully under 120°. This is gun cotton. To make collodion, dis- 
solve 20 grs. gun-cotton in 6 oz. sulphuric ether, to which add 
alcohol, % oz. ; let it stand a short time, and pour off the clear into 
bottle No. 1 for use. In bottle No. 2, put 1 oz. alcohol, and as much 
iodide of ammonium as it will dissolve; then add as much iodide of 
silver (made from nitrate of silver and iodide of potassium) as the 
solution will take up. Get another bottle, No. 3, with a wide 
mouth; into it put 1 oz. out of No. 1, to which add 15 or 20 drops 
out of No. 2. The collodion thus formed is call collodio-iodide of 
silver. Having well cleaned a plate of glass of the size of the 
frame in your camera, coat it completely and very evenly on one 
side, by pouring the collodion on the centre from the bottle; pour 
back any excess of liquid from one corner of the glass, and in this 
way you coat the plate in a uniform manner. To prepare the plate 
thus coated for the camera, plunge it carefully and quickly into a 
bath of the following proportions, then allow it to remain covered 
in the solution ahout two minutes: Distilled water, 1 oz.; nitrate of 
silver, 80 grs.; alcohol, 30 drops; dissolve and filter. Obtain a good 
focus, place the plate in the frame and the frame in the camera, 
pull up the slide in front, and expose a proper length of time; hav- 
ing closed your slide, remove the frame to your dark room, take out 
the plate, -and develop the picture with the following solution, hold- 
ing the plate perfectly level, the collodion side upward, and pour- 
ing enough of it on the plate to cover it; in a short time the picture 
will be developed: Water, 1 oz.; copperas, 14 grs.; saltpetre, 10 grs.; 
acetic acid, % drachm; nitric acid, 2 drops; then wash with water, 
and pour over it some of the solution of hyposulphite of soda made 
thus: Water, 1 pt. ; hyposulphate of soda, 4 oz., allow it to remain 
for two minutes, then wash off thoroughly, and your picture is 
finished. By this process, a most beautiful picture is obtained in a 
space of time varying from a fraction of a second up to 15 seconds, 
with the most perfect detail of all the parts. 



Bottle Glass.— No. 1. Dark Green.— Fused glauber-salts, 11 
lbs.; soaper's salts, 12 lbs.; waste soap-ashes, % bushel; silicious 
sand, % cwt. ; glass-skimmings, 22 lbs.; broken green glass, 1 cwt. 
to lyi cwt. ; basalt, 25 lbs. to yi cwt. 

No. 2. Pale Green.— Pale sand, 100 lbs.; kelp, 35 lbs.; lixivia- 
ted wood ashes, V/ 2 cwt.; fresh, do., 40 lbs.; pipe-clay, % cwt.; cul- 
let, or broken glass, \y 2 cwt. 

No. 3. Yellow or white sand, 120 parts; woodashes, 80 parts; 
pearlashes, 20 parts; common salt, 15 parts; white arsenic, 1 part; 
very pale. 



Crystal Glass.— No. 1. Refined pot-ashes, 60 lbs.; sand, 120 lbs.; 
chalk, 24 lbs.; nitre and white arsenic, of each 2 lbs.; oxide of 
manganese, 1 to 2 oz. No. 2. Pure white sand, 120 parts; refined 
ashes, 70 parts; saltpetre; 10 parts; white arsenic, y 2 part; oxide of 
manganese, >£ part. No. 3. Sand, 120 parts; red lead, 50 parts; 
purified pearlash, 40 parts; nitre, 20 parts; manganese, y 2 part, 



RECEIPTS FOE MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 319 

Flask Glass (of St. Mienne.)—Puie silicious sand, 61 parts; 
potash, 3}4 parts; lime, 21 parts; heavy spar, 2 parts; oxide of 
manganese, q. s. 

Best German Crystal Glass.— Take 120 lbs. of calcined flints 
or white sand; best pearl-ashes, 70 lbs.; saltpetre, 10 lbs.; arsenic, 
V 2 lb.; and 5 oz. manganese. No. 2. (Cheaper.) Sand or flint, 120 
lbs. ; pearlash, 46 lbs. ; nitre, 7 lbs. ; arsenic, 6 lbs. ; magnesia, 5 oz. 
This will require a long continuance in the furnace, as do all others 
when much of the arsenic is used. 



Plate Glass.— No. 1. Pure sand, 40 parts; dry carbonate of soda, 
26% parts; lime, 4 parts; nitre, \% parts; broken plate glass, 25 
parts. No. 2. Ure's.— Quartz-sand, 100 parts; calcined sulphate 
of soda, 24 parts; lime, 20 parts; cullet of soda-glass, 12 parts. 
No. 3. Vienna. — Sand, 100 parts; calcined sulphate of soda, 50 
parts; lime, 20 parts; charcoal, 2% parts. No. 4. French. — White 
quartz sand and cullet, of each 300 parts; dry carbonate of soda, 
100 parts; slacked lime, 43 parts. 

Crown Glass.— No. 1. Sand, 300 lbs.; soda-ash, 200 lbs.; 
lime, 30 to 35 lbs. ; 200 to 300 lbs. of broken glass. No. 2. (Bohe- 
mian.) — Pure silicious sand, 63 parts; potash, 22 parts; lime, 12 
parts; oxide of manganese, 1 part. No. 3. (Prof. Schweiger.) 
Pure sand, 100 lbs.; dry sulphate of soda, 50 parts; dry quicklime 
in powder, 17 to 20 parts; charcoal, 4 parts. Product— White and 
good. 

Best Window Glass.— No. 1. Take of white sand, 60 lbs.; 
purified pearlashes, 30 lbs. ; of saltpetre, 15 lbs. ; of borax, 1 lb. ; 
of arsenic, y 2 lb. This will be very clear and colorless if the ingre- 
dients be good, and will not be very dear. No. 2. (Cheaper.) — 
White sand, 60 lbs.; unpurified pearlashes, 25 lbs.; of common 
salt, 10 lbs. ; nitre, 5 lbs. ; arsenic, 2 lbs. ; manganese, 1% oz. No. 3. 
Common Green Window-Class. — White sand, 60 lbs.; unpuri- 
fied pearlashes, 30 lbs. ; common salt, 10 lbs. ; arsenic, 2 lbs. ; man- 
ganese, 2 oz. 

Looking Glass Plate.— No. 1. Cleansed white sand, 60 lbs.; 
pearlashes, purified, 25 lbs. ; saltpetre, 15 lbs. ; borax, 7 lbs. This 
composition should be continued long in the fire, which should be 
sometimes strong, and afterwards, more moderate, that the glass 
may be entirely free from bubbles before it be worked. No. 2. 
White sand, 60 lbs.; pearl-ashes, 20 lbs.; common salt, 10 lbs.; 
nitre, 7 lbs. ; borax, 1 lb. This glass will run with as little heat as 
the former; but it will be more brittle, and refract the rays of light 
in a greater degree. No. 3. Washed white sand, 60 lbs. ; purified 
pearl-ashes, 25 lbs. ; nitre, 15 lbs. ; borax, 7 lbs. If properly man- 
aged, this glass will be colorless. 

"Window Glass.— No. 1. Dried sulphate of soda, 11 lbs.; 
soaper-salt, 10 lbs.; lixiviated soap- waste, % bush.; sand, 50 to 60 
lbs. ; glass-pot skimmings, 22 lbs. ; broken pale green glass, 1 cwt. 
No. 2. (Paler).— White sand, 60 lbs.; pearlashes, 30 lbs.; com- 
mon salt, 10 lbs. ; arsenic, 10 lbs. ; oxide of manganese, 2 to 4 oz. 



320 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 

No. 3. (Very pale.)— White sand, 60 lbs.; good potashes, 25 lbs.; 
common salt, 10 lbs.; nitre, 5 lbs.; arsenic, 2 lbs.; manganese; 2 to 
4 oz. as required; broken pale window-glass, 14 lbs. 

Magic Paper. — Take lard oil, or sweet oil, mixed to the 
consistencey of cream, with either of the following paints, the color 
of which is desired: Prussian blue, lamp-black, Venetian red, or 
chrome green, either of which should be rubbed with a knife on a 
plate or stone until smooth. Use rather thin but firm paper; put 
on with a sponge, and wipe off as dry as convenient; then lay them 
between uncolored paper, or between newspapers, and press by 
laying books or some other flat substance upon them until the sur- 
plus oil is absorbed, when it is ready for use. 

To Make Grindstones from Common Sand.— "River sand, 
30 lbs. ; shellac, 10 parts; powdered glass, 2 parts; melt in an iron 
pot, and cast into moulds. 

Printing Rollers are made of glue and molasses, with some- 
times a little Spanish white. The proportions are 1 lb. glue to 1 
pint molasses. Break the glue to pieces, soak for 24 hours is suffi- 
cient, then melt with the molasses, and cast in a mould previously 
oiled to prevent it from sticking. When it gets hard after long use 
remelt it, using a little more molasses. 

Savage's Printing Ink.— Pure balsam of copaiba, 9 oz.; lamp- 
black, 3 oz.; indigo and Prussian blue, each 5 drachms; Indian red, 
% oz.; yellow soap, 3 oz. Miz, and grind to the utmost smooth- 
ness. 



Holes in Millstones are filled with melted alum, mixing 
burr sand witli it. If the hole is large, put some pieces of burr-mill 
stones in it first, and pour in melted" alum. These pieces of block 
should be cut exactly to fit. There should be small joints, and 
fastened with plaster of Paris. These holes should be cut at least 
4 inches deep; there is then no danger of their getting loose. 



Fitting a New Back in an Old Millstone.— Block your 
stone up with a block of wood, having its face down until it lies 
even, solid, and perfectly level; then pick and scrape off all the 
old plaster down to the face blocks, so that none remains but what 
is in the joints of the face blocks; then wash these blocks, and keep 
them soaked with water. Keep a number of pieces of burr blocks, 
at the same time, soaked with water. Take a. pail half filled with 
clean water, and mixed with 2 tablespooni'uls of glue water, boiled 
and dissolved; mix in with your hand plaster of Paris until it be 
thick enough that it will not' run; and, breaking all the lumps, pour 
this on the stone, rubbing it in with your hand; the stone being at 
the same time damped; and place small pieces of stone all over the 
joints of the face blocks; you then, with more plaster, mixed in the 



RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 321 

sam3 way, but more stiff, with this and pieces of burr stones, build 
walls round the eye and verge 4 or 5 inches high, leaving the 
surface uneven and the eye larger, as it will be brought to its 
proper size by the last operation. It is better to build up the wall 
of the running stone round the verge for 3 inches without any 
spalls, so that the holes may be cut in to balance it. If you wish 
to make your stone heavier, you will take small pieces of iron, per- 
fectly clean and free from grease, and lay them evenly all around 
the stone in the hollow place between the two walls just built; and 
with plaster mixed a little thicker than milk, pour in under and 
through all the crevices in the iron until the surface is nearly level 
with the two walls. If the stones do not require additional weight 
added, instead of iron use pieces of stone the same way, leaving 
the surface rough and uneven Again, as before, build walls 
round the verge of the stone, and round the eye of the stone, until 
they are within 2 inches of the thickness you want your stones to be, 
the wall round the eye being 2 inches higher than that round the 
verge, and filling the space between the walls with stones; and, 
pouring in plaster again, make it nearly level with the walls, but 
leaving the surface rough and jagged, to make the plaster adhere 
wellto.it. Let it stand until the back is dry and perfectly set, 
when you raise the stone upon its edge, and, with a trowel, plaster 
round the edge of the stone neatly, giving it a taper of % inch 
from the face to the back of the stone. When cased round in this 
way, lay the stone down on the cock-head; it being in the balance 
ryne, but the driver off, then raise the spindle, and balance the 
stone as already directed before putting on the remainder of the 
back. Then have a tin made the size of the eye, and to reach from 
the balance ryne to the thickness you want the stone to be at the 
eye. This tin should be exactiy fitted to its place, and made fast; 
then fit a hoop of wood or iron round the verge, having the upper 
edge of the thickness from the face you want the stone to be at the 
verge, and equal all round. This hoop should be greased; and all 
the cracks round it, and the tin in the eye, being stopped, you pour 
thin plaster (with more glue water then in previous operations, to 
prevent it from setting so quickly, and to give time to finish off the 
back correctly) until it be level with the hoop round the verge, and 
with a straight edge, one end resting on the hoop, and the other 
end resting on the tin at the eye; then, by moving it round, and 
working the plaster with a trowel, make the surface of the back 
even and smooth between these two points. The hoop is then 
taken off, and the back and edges planed smooth; then lower the 
spindle until your runner lies solid, and put your band or hoop on, 
it being first made nearly red hot, and taking care that it is of suffi- 
cient size not to require too much driving; if fitting too tightly, it 
may loosen the back in driving it to its proper place. It may be 
cooled gently by pouring water on it; and, when cool, it should 
fit tight. 

Mill Dams. — When building a dam, you should select the most 
suitable place. If you can, place it across the stream near a rocky 
bluff, so that the ends of the dam may run into the bluff. This wiil 
prevent the water running by at the ends of the dam. Build your 
dam strong; if this is not done, they are breaking up often, causing 
ruinous expense in money and loss' of time. 



322 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 

ilock Dams are incomparably the best in use, if there is plenty 
of material at hand for building, and a rock bottom to the stream; 
if there is not a rock bottom, you should dig a trench in the bottom, 
deep enongh, so that the water cannot undermine it. This should 
be the same as if you were building the foundation of a large build- 
ing. The wall to be built should be of a small, circular form, so 
that the back of the circle should be next to the body of water, 
which may by its pressure tighten it. To secure the water from 
leaking through at the ends of the dam, dig a ditch deeper than the 
bottom of the river; then fill this with small pieces of rock, and pour 
in cement. This cement is made of hydraulic cement, and is made 
of one part cement to five parts of pure sand. It will effectually 
stop all crevices. A rock dam, if well built, will be perfectly tight. 
Use as large rock as you conveniently can move; building this wall 
4 to 6 feet thick, according to the length of the dam, with jam or 
buttresses every place where they are needed to strengthen it. 
Make true joints to these rocks, especially on the ends, so that they 
may join close together. When you have the outside walls laid in 
cement, for every layer fill the middle up with pieces of small rock, 
pouring in your grout, so that there may not be a crevice but what 
is filled. If there is any crevice or hole left open, the water will 
break through, wearingit larger and larger. If the stream is wide 
and large, it is necessary to build the dam in two sections, which 
should be divided by a waste way, necessary for the waste or surplus 
water to run over, to keep the head in its proper place or height. 
Let each section, next to where the water is to be run over, be 
abutments, built to strengthen the clam. The last layer of rock, on 
the top where the waste water runs over, should project 5 or 6 inches 
over the back of the dam, so that the water may not undermine it. 
This last layer should be of large rocks, and jointed true; then laid 
in hydraulic cement, in proportion of 1 of cement to 3 of sand. 
When the dam is built, the front should be filled up with coarse 
gravel or clay; this is best done with teams, as the more it is tramped 
the more durable it becomes. 



Frame Dams.— In building a frame dam commence with a good 
foundation, laying the first sills in the bottom, of sufficient depth. 
They should be large square timbers that will last in the water 
without rotting. Where there is a soft foundation, the bottom should 
first be made level; then dig trenches for the mud sills, abont 7 or 8 
feet apart, lengthways of the stream, and 10 or 12 feet long. Into 
these first sills other sills must be framed, and put crosswise of the 
stream, 6 or 8 feet apart, to reach as far across the stream as neces- 
sary. Then two outside sills should be piled down with 2-inch 
plank driven down to a depth of 4 or 5 feet. If this can be done 
conveniently, they are to be jointed as closely as possible. It 
would be better to line with some stuff 1 inch thick; then with posts 
their proper length, about 12 or 14 inches square, which should be 
framed into the uppermost sills, in both sides, and all the way 
across the dam, from bank to bank, at a distance of 6 feet apart. 
Then, with braces to each post, to extend two-thirds of the length 
of the post, where they should be joined together with a lock, in- 
stead of a mortise and tenon, with an iron bolt of 1 or 1}4 inches 
in diameter, going through both, and tightened with a screw and 



RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 323 

nut. When mortises and tenons are used, they often hecome rot- 
ten and useless in a few days. These braces should be set at an 
angle of 50 or 60° with the other end mortised into the mud sill. 
These braces require to be about 6 to 8 inches, and as long as you 
find necessary; being covered with dirt, it will not decay for a long 
time, as the air is excluded. These posts should be capped from 
one to the other, plate fashion. The posts should be lined with 2 
or iy 2 inch plank on the inside, pinned to the plank, and should, in 
the middle, be filled in with dirt. 

If the stream is large and wide, the dam should be built in two 
sections, which should be divided by a waste-way for the surplus 
water, which should be in the centre of the dam, and sufficient for 
all the waste-water to run over. Let each section of the dam form 
an abutment next to the waste- way, placing cells or sills 4 feet apart 
the length of the waste- way; in each of these sills, posts should be 
framed with a brace for the sides. These rows of posts, standing 
across the dam, will form the sectional abutments; the middle one 
may be constructed by being lengthways of the stream, with shore 
braces, so that .they will not be in the way of driftwood passing 
down the stream; it being necessary for strong pieces for a bridge. 
Then cover the sills with an apron of 2-inch plank joined perfectly 
straight, to extend 30 or 40 feet below the dam, to prevent the 
undermining of the dam. The planks which are used for the pur- 
pose of lining the posts which form the abutments of each section 
of the dam and the ends of the waste-way, should be truly pointed, 
so as to prevent any leakage. The dam being built, the dirt 
should be filled in with teams; as the more it is tramped the better. 
Clay or coarse gravel is the best. Then place your gates on the 
upper side of the waste- way, the size that is necessary to a level 
with low- water mark; which gates are not to be raised except in 
times of high water, as the proper height of the mill-pond should 
be regulated by boards placed over the gate for the desired head, 
as the water should be allowed to pass at all times freely over 
them. To strengthen the dam, if you think necessary, 2-inch 
plank may be used in lining the front side of the dam, long enough 
to reach from the bottom of the stream (on an inclined plane, and 
next to the body of water) to the top of the dam, and filled up 
nearly to the top of the dam with clay or gravel well tramped 
down. 



Brush or Log Dams are very often used in small, muddy 
streams. When the bottom of the stream is of a soft nature ; take 
a flat-boat where you want to fix your dam, and drive piles the 
whole length of the stream, about 3 or 4 feet apart, as deep as you 
can. Take young oak saplings, pointed at the end, for the pur- 
pose. If you can, construct a regular pile-driver, similar to those 
in use for making trestle-work on the railways. The weight may 
be pulled up by horses instead of an engine. When you have fin- 
ished driving piles, make some boxes or troughs of 2 or 3 inch 
plank, about 3 feet wide and as long as the plank is. Sink these in 
the water, the length of the dam, close to the piles, by loading 
them with rock, until they are at the bottom of the stream, filling 
in the front part of the dam with dirt and brush, nearly to the 
height you want it. This kind of dam will last a long time. 



324 RECEIPTS FOE MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 

Whenever there is a small break in the dam or race, cut up some 
willows and brush, put them in the break along with some straw 
and dirt, and ram them down with clay. 

In regard to the flume, the greatest care must be taken to insure 
strength and durability, combined with lightness. Every step 
taken in its construction must be of such a nature as to unite these 
qualities in the highest possible degree, otherwise the whole is, in a 
manner, labor lost. 

To Restore Burnt Steel, and Weld Cast Steel.— Borax, 48 
oz.; sal amnionic, 16 oz.; prussiate potash, 8 oz.; rosin, 4 oz.; alco- 
hol, y 2 gill; soft water, y 2 pint. Put into an iron pan, and hold 
over a slow fire till it comes to a slow boil, and until the liquid 
matter evaporates, not letting it boil hard, and being careful to stir 
it well from the bottom all the time. 

Steel may be burned till it drops apart, and the particles gathered 
and welded together with this composition, making it as durable as 
ever. 

Superior Bell Metal.— Copper, 100 lbs. ; tin, 23 lbs. 

Electrum.— Copper, 8 nickel, 4 zinc, Z% parts. This compound 
is unsurpassed for ease of workmanship and beauty of appear- 



To "Write in Silver. — Mix 1 oz. of the finest pewter or block tin, 
and 2 oz. of quicksilver together till both become fluid, then grind 
it with gum water, and write with it. The writing will then look 
as if done with silver. 

Best Bronze for Brass. — Take 1 lb. muriatic acid, and % lb. 
white arsenic. Put them into an earthen vessel, and then proceed in 
the usual manner. 

Another Bronze for Brass. — One ounce muriate of ammonia, % 
oz. alum, yi oz. arsenic, dissolved all together in 1 pint of strong 
vinegar. 

Zincing. — Copper and brass vessels may be covered with a firmly 
adherent layer of pure zinc by boiling them in contact with a solu- 
tion of chloride of zinc, pure zinc turnings being at the same time 
present in considerable excess. 

Dentist's Emery Wheels.— Emery, 4 lbs.,; shellac, X H>«; me ^ 
the shellac over a slow fire; stir in the emery, and pour it into a 
mould of plaster of Paris. When cold it is ready for use. 

Incrustation of Boilers.— (Delfosse's Patent).— If the boiler 
be stationary, and fed with fresh water, the amount of anti-petrify- 
ing mixture per horse power for 336 hours' consumption may bfr 



RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 325 

made by mixing together 12 oz. muriate of soda, 2 drs. of dry tan- 
nic or gallic acid, 2>£ oz. of hydrate of soda, or 1 or y 2 oz. of sub- 
carbonate of potash. For locomotive boilers travelling an average 
of 140 miles per day, the quantity of the mixture per horse power 
is increased one-fifth. If the water be brackish, or a mixture of 
salt and fresh, the muriate of soda is omitted, and instead of 12 oz., 
are used for 2% oz. of hydrate of soda, and 5 drs. instead of 2 of the 
dry tannic or gallic extract. The mixture is also prepared in this 
manner when sea water is used in the boiler. The patentee prefers 
introducing the mixture into stationary boilers in quantities for 
two, three, or more days, but locomotive and marine boilers are to 
be supplied daily with a portion of the mixture, corresponding with 
the amount of duty to be performed. 

To Lessen Friction in Machinery.— Grind together black lead 
with 4 times its weight of lard or tallow. Camphor is sometimes 
added (7 lbs. to the hundred weight.) 

Colored Glass.— (Fife Blue).— To 10 lbs. flint glass, previ- 
ously melted and cast into water, add zaffer, 6 drs. , % oz. of cal- 
cined copper, prepared by putting sheet copper into a crucible, and 
exposing it to the action of a fire not strong enough to melt the 
copper, and you will have the copper in scales, which you pound. 

Bright Ptjrple.— Use 10 lbs. flint glass as before; zaffer, 5 drs.; 
precipitate of calcium, 1 dr. 

Gold Yellow.— Twenty-eight pounds flint glass, and a quarter 
pound of the tartar which is found in urine, purify by putting it in 
a crucible in the fire till it smoke no more; add 2 oz. of manga- 
nese. 

To Take a Plaster of Paris Cast from a Person's Face.— The 
person must lie on his back, and his hair be tied behind, into each 
nostril put a conical piece of paper open at each end to allow of 
breathing. The face is to be lightly oiled over, and the plaster, 
being properly prepared, it is to be poured over the face, taking 
particular care that the eyes are shut, till it is a quarter of an inch 
thick. In a few minutes the plaster may be removed. In this a 
mold is to be formed, from which a second cast is to be taken, that 
will furnish casts exactly like the original. 

To Harden and Temper Cast Steel. — For saws and springs in 
general, the following is an excellent liquid: Spermaceti oil, 20 
gals.; beef suet rendered, 20 lbs.; neat's-foot oil, 1 gallon; pitch, 1 
lb. ; black resin, 3 lbs. The last two articles must be previously 
melted together, and then added to the other ingredients, when the 
whole must be heated in a proper iron vessel, with a close cover 
fitted to it, until all moisture is evaporated, and the composition 
will take fire on a flaming body being presented to its surface. 



Furniture Oil.— Linseed oil, 1 gallon; alkanet root, 3 oz.-, rose 



326 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 

pink, 1 oz. Boil them together ten minutes, and strain so that the 
oil be quite clear. 

To Cast Figures in Imitation of Ivory.— Make isinglass and 
brandy into a paste, with powdered egg-shells very finely ground. 
You may give it what color you choose; but cast it warm into your 
mould which you previously oil over; leave the figure in the mould 
till dry, and you will find on taking it out that it bears a very strong 
resemblance to ivory. 

\ 

To Print a Picture from the Print Itself. — The page or picture 
is soaked in a solution, first of potassa, and then of tartaric acid. 
This produces a perfect diffusion of crystals of bitartrate of potassa 
through the texture of the imprinted part of the paper. As this 
salt resists oil, the ink roller may now be passed over the surface, 
without transferring any part of its contents except to the printed 
part. 

- 

To Clean Old Oil-paintings.— Dissolve a small quantity of salt 
in stale urine; dip a woolen cloth in the mixture, and rub the 
paintings over with it till they are clean; then wash them with a 
sponge and clean water; dry them gradually, and rub them over 
with a clean cloth. Should the dirt be not easily removed by the 
above preparation, add a small quantity of soft soap. Be very 
careful not to rub the paintings too hard. 

\ 

To Renew Old Oil-paintings.— The blackened lights of old 
pictures may be instantly restored to their original hue by touching 
them with deutoxide of hydrogen diluted with six or eight times its 
weight of water. The part must be afterwards washed with a clean 
sponge and water. 

To Lengthen Levers of Anchor-escapement'Watches -with- 
out Hammering or Soldering. — Cut square across with a screw- 
head file, a little back from the point above the fork, and, when you 
have thus cut into it to a sufficient depth, bend forward the desired 
distance the piece thus partially detached. In the event of the piece 
snapping off while bending — which, however, rarely happens — file 
down the point level with the fork, and insert a pin, English lever 
style. 

Chain Dip Solution, for Brass Chains, &c— Sulphuric acid, 
2^ oz; nitric acid, 2oz.; rain-water, 2oz.; saltpetre, 1 dr.; mix to- 
gether in a glass bottle, and let stand a few hours. Apply by dipping 
the article into the solution quickly, and then at once wash off thor- 
oughly, and rinse in clean rain-water and dry in saw-dust. Re- 
moves instantaneously all stains or discolorations, and gives to the 
article a perfectly bright appearance. 

Pickle for Frosting and Whitening Silver Goods.— Sulphu- 
ric acid, 1 dr. ; water, 4 oz. ; heat the pickle, and immerse the silver 



RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 327 



in until frosted as desired; then wash off clean, and dry with a soft 
linen cloth, or in fine clean saw-dust. For whitening only, a smaller 
proportion of acid may be used. 

Etruscan Gold Coloring.— A] urn, loz.; fine table-salt, loz.; 
saltpetre (powdered,) 2 oz. ; hot rain-water, sufficient to make the so- 
lution, when dissolved, about the consistency of thick ale; then add 
sufficient muriatic acid to produce the color desired. The degree 
of success must always depend, in a greater or less degree, upon 
the skill or judgment of the operator. The article to be colored 
should be from fourteen to eighteen carats fine, of pure gold and 
copper only, and be free from coatings of tin or silver solder. The 
solution is best used warm, and when freshly made the principle on 
which it acts is to eat out the copper alloy from the surface of the 
article, leaving thereon pure, frosted gold only. After coloring, 
wash off, first in rain-water, then in alcohol, and dry without rub- 
bing, in fine, clean saw-dust. Fine Etruscan jewelry that has been 
defaced or tarnished by use may be perfectly renewed by the same 
process. 

Tarnish on Electro-plated "Ware may be removed by immer- 
sing the article from one to ten or fifteen minutes, or until the tarnish 
has been removed, but no longer, in the following solution: Rain- 
water, 2 gals.; cyanuret potassa, % lb.; dissolve, and put into a 
stone jug or jar and closely cork. After immersion, the articles 
must be taken out and thoroughly rinsed in two or three waters, 
then dried with a soft linen cloth, or, if frosted or chased work> 
with fine, clean saw-dust. Tarnished jewelry may be speedily 
restored by this process; but make sure work of removing the alkali- 
otherwise it will corrode the goods. 

A Bright Gold Tinge may be given to silver by steeping it for a 
suitable length of time in a weak solution of sulphuric acid and 
water strongly impregnated with iron-rust. 

To Make a Diamond Mill.— Make a brass chuck or wheel, suit- 
able for use on a foot-lathe, with a flat, even surface or face of 
about V/z or 2 inches in diameter; then place a number of the 
coarsest pieces of your diamond-dust on different parts of its face, 
and with a smooth-faced steel hammer drive the pieces of dust all 
evenly into the brass to nearly or quite level with the surface. Your 
mill, thus prepared, is now used for making pallet jewels or for 
grinding stone and glass of any kind. For polishing, use a bone or 
boxwood chuck or wheel, of similar form to your mill, and coat it 
lightly with the finest grade of your diamond-dust and oil; with this 
a beautiful polish may be given to the hardest stone. 

To Temper Case and other Springs of Watches. — Draw the 

temper from the spring, and fit it properly in its place in the watch; 
then take it out and temper it hard in rain-water (the addition of a little 
table-salt to the water will be an improvement;) after which place 
it in a small sheet-iron ladle or cup and barely cover it with linseed 



328 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 

oil; then hold he ladle over a lighted lamp until the oil ignites; let 
it burn until the oil is nearly, not quite all, consumed; then re-cover 
with oil and burn clown as before; and so a third time; at the end 
of which, plunge it again into water. Main and hair springs may, 
in like manner, he tempered by the same process: first draw the 
temper, and properly coil and clamp to keep in position, and then 
proceed the same as with case springs. 

To Make Red "Watch Hands. 1 oz. carmine, loz. muriate of 

silver, % oz. tinner's japan; mix together in an earthen vessel, and 
hold over a spirit-lamp until formed into a paste. Apply this to the 
watch hand, and then lay it on a copper plate, face side up, and 
heat the plate sufficiently to produce the color desired. 

To Drill into Hard Steel.— Make your drill oval in form, instead 
of the usual pointed shape, and temper as hard as it will bear with- 
out breaking; then roughen the surface where you desire to drill 
with a little diluted muriatic acid, and, instead of oil, use turpen- 
tine or kerosene, in which a little gum camphor has been dissolved, 
with your drill. In operating, keep the pressure on your drill firm 
and steady; and if the bottom of the hole should chance to become 
burnished, so that the drill will not act, as sometimes happens, 
again roughen with diluted acid as before; then clean out the hole 
carefully, and proceed again. 

To Case-harden Iron.— If you desire to harden to any consider- 
able depth, put the article into a crucible with cyanide of potash, 
cover over and heat altogether, then plunge into water. This pro- 
cess will harden perfectly to the depth of two or three inches. 



To Put Teeth in a "Watch or Clock Wheels without Dove- 
tailing or Soldering. — Drill a hole somewhat wider than the tooth 
square through the plate, a little below the base of the tooth; cut from 
the edge of the wheel square down to the hole already drilled; then 
flatten a piece of wire so as to fit snugly into the cut of the saw, 
and with a light hammer form a head on it like the head of a pin. 
When thus prepared, press the wire or pin into position in the 
wheel, the head filling the hole drilled through the plate, and the 
end projecting out so as to form the tooth; then with a sharp 
pointed graver cut a small groove each side of the pin from the 
edge of the wheel down to the hole, and with a blow of your ham- 
mer spread the face of the pin so rs to fill the grooves just cut. 
Repeat the same operation on the other side of the wheel, and 
finish off in the usual way. The tooth will be found perfectly 
riveted in on every side, and as strong as the original one, while in 
appearance it will be equal to the best dovetailing. 

To Tighten a Cannon Pinion on the Centre Arbor -when 
too Loose. — Grasp the arbor lightly with a pair of cutting nippers, 
and, by a single turn of the nippers around the arbor, cut or raise 
a small thread thereon. 



RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 329 

Jeweller's Alloys.— Eighteen Carat Gold for Rings. —Gold 
coin, 19% grs.; pure copper, 3 grs.; pure silver, 1)4 grs. 

I Cheap Gold, Twelve Carat.— Gold coin, 25 grs. ; pure copper, 
13% grs.; pure silver, 7% grs. 

Very Cheap Four Carat Gold.— Copper, 18 parts; gold, 4 
parts; silver, 2 parts. 

/ Imitations op Gold.— 1. Platina, 4 dwt.; pure copper, 1% dwt; 
sheet-zinc, 1 dwt. ; block-tin, \y A dwt. ; pure lead, 1% dwt. If this 
should be found too hard or brittle for practical use, re- melting the 
composition with a little sal-ammoniac will generally render it malle- 
able as desired. 2. Platina, 2 parts; silver, 1 part; copper, 3 parts. 
These compositions, when properly prepared, so nearly resemble 
pure gold that it is very difficult to distinguish them therefrom. A 
little powdered charcoal mixed with metals while melting will be 
found of service. 

Best Oroide of Gold.— Pure copper, 4 oz. ; sheet zinc, l%oz.; 
magnesia, % oz.; sal-ammoniac, %oz.; quicklime, 9-32 oz.; cream 
tartar, % oz. First melt the copper at as low a temperature as it 
will melt; then add the zinc, and afterwards the other articles, in 
powder, in the order named. Use a charcoal fire to melt these 
metals. 



Bushing Alloy for Pivot Holes, &c— Gold coin, 3 dwt. ; silver, 
1 dwt., 20 grs. ; copper, 3 dwt., 20 grs. ; palladium, 1 dwt. The best 
composition known for the purpose named. 

Gold Solder for Fourteen to Sixteen-Carat "Work.— Gold 
coin, 1 dwt.; pure silver, 9 grs.; pure copper, 6 grs.; brass, 3 grs. 

Darker Solder.— Gold coin, 1 dwt. ; pure copper, 8 grs. ; pure sil- 
ver, 5 grs. ; brass, 2 grs. ; melt together in charcoal fire. 

The Northern-Light Burning Fluid.— Costs About Eight 
Cents Per Gallon.— Get good deodorized benzine, 60 to 65 gravity, 
and to each barrel of 42 gals, add 2 lbs. pulverized alum, 3% oz. 
gum camphor, and 3% oz. oil of sassafras, or 2 oz. oil bergamot; 
stir up and mix thoroughly together and it will soon be ready for 
use. 

N". B.— As this fluid creates a much larger volume of light and 
flame than carbon oil, it is necessary to use either a high Diirner, 
such as the Sun burner, to elevate the flame away from the lamp, 
in order to keep it cool, or, instead thereof, to use a burner provi- 
ded with a tube for the escape of the gas generated from the fluid, 
such, for instance, as the Meridian burner. 



To Reduce Oxide of Zinc— The oxide may be put in quantities 
of 500 or 500 lbs. weight into a large pot over the fire; pour a suffi- 
cient quantity of muriatic acid over the top, to act as a flux, and 
23 



330 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 

the action of the fire will melt the dross, when the pure metal will 
be found at the bottom of the pot. 

New Process to Restore Burnt Steel.-— When your steel is 
burnt, immerse it immediately, for a very short time, in cold water; 
then hammer it on the anvil, turning, moving, and otherwise manipu- 
lating it while undergoing this treatment. A little dexterous prac- 
tice will soon enable you to restore steel, by this beautiful and sim- 
ple process, that would otherwise be hopelessly ruined. 

To Remove Rust from Iron or Steel. — For cleaning purposes, 
&c, kerosene oil or benzine are probably the best things known. 
When articles have become pitted by rust, however, these can, of 
course, only be removed by mechanical means, such as scouring 
with fine powder, or flour of emery and oil, or with very fine emery 
paper. To prevent steel from rusting, rub it with a mixture of 
lime and oil, or with mercurial ointment, either of which will be 
found valuable. 



To Restore Frozen Silver Solution.— If it is the whitening 
solution, add 10 pennyweights of cyanide of potassium to a pint of 
the solution. For the first, or hard coat solution, add about double 
the above quantity. 

On "Watch Cleaning.— It is hardly necessary to say that great 
caution must be observed in taking the watch down — that is, in 
separating its parts. If you are new at the business think before 
you act, and then act slowly. Take off the hands carefully so as 
not to bend the slender pivots upon which they work; this will be 
the first step. 2. Loosen and lift the movement from the case. 3. 
Remove the dial and dial wheels. 4. Let down the main-spring by 
placing your bench key upon the arbor, or ' ' winding post, ' ' and 
turning as though you were going to wind the watch until the click 
rests lightly upon the ratchet; then with your screw-driver press 
the point of the click away from the teeth, and ease down the 
springs. 5. Draw the screw's (or pins) and remove the bridges of 
the train, or the upper plate, as the case may be. 6. Take out the 
balance. Great care must be observed in this or you will injure the 
hair-spring. The stud or little square post into which the hair- 
spring is fastened may be removed from the bridge or plate of most 
modern watches, without unkeying the spring, by slipping a thin 
instrument, as the edge of a knife blade, under the corner of it and 
prying upward. This will save you a considerable amount of 
trouble, as you will not have the hair-spring to adjust when you 
reset the balance. 

If the watch upon which you propose, to work has an upper 
plate, as an American or an English lever, for instance, loosen the 
lever before you have entirely separated the plates, otherwise it 
will hang and most likely be broken. 

Having the machine now down, brush the dust from its different 
parts and subject them to a careful examination with your eye- 
glass. Assure yourself that the teeth of the wheels and leaves of 



RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 331 

the pinions are all perfect and smooth; that the pivots are all 
straight, round and highly polished, that the holes through which 
they are to work are not too large, and have not become oval in 
shape; that every jewel is smooth and perfectly sound; and that 
none of them are loose in their settings. See, also, that the escape- 
ment is not too deep or too shallow; that the lever or cylinder is 
perfect; that all the wheels have sufficient play to avoid friction, but 
not enough to derange their coming together properly: that none of 
them work against the pillar-plate; that the balance turns horizon- 
tally and does not rub; that the hair-spring is not bent or wrongly 
set so that the coils rub on each other, on the plate, or on the 
balance; in short, that everything about the whole movement is 
just as reason would teach you it should be. If you find it other- 
wise, proceed to repair in accordance with a carefully weighed 
judgment, and the processes given in the next chapter, after which 
clean— if not the watch only needs to be cleaned, and therefore 
you may go ahead with your work at once. 

To Clean.— Many watchmakers wet the pillar-plates and 
bridges with saliva, and then dipping the brush into pulverized 
chalk or Spanish whiting, rub vigorously until they appear bright. 
This is not a good plan, as it tends to remove the plating and 
roughen the parts, and the chalk gets into the holes and damages 
them, or sticks around the edges of the wheel-beds. The best pro- 
cess is to simply blow your breath upon the plate or bridge to be 
cleaned, and tlien to use your brush with a little prepared chalk — 
(See recipe for preparing it. ) The wheels and bridges should be 
held between the thumb and finger in a piece of soft paper while 
undergoing the process; otherwise the oil from the skin will prevent 
their becoming clean. The pinions may be cleaned by sinking them 
several times into a piece of pith, and the holes by turning a nicely 
shaped piece of pivot wood into them, first dry and afterwards oiled 
a very little with watch oil. When the holes pass through jewels 
you must work gently to avoid breaking them. 

The oiling above named is all the watch will need. A great fault 
with many watchmakers lies in their use of too much oil. 

The Chemical Process. — Some watchmakers employ what 
they call the "Chemical Process" to clean and remove discolora- 
tions from watch movements. It is as follows: 

Remove the screws and other steel parts; then dampen with a 
solution of oxalic acid and water. Let it remain a few moments, 
after which immerse in a solution made of one-fourth pound 
cyanuret potassa to one gallon rain water. Let remain about five 
minutes, and then rinse well with clean water, after which you 
may dry in sawdust, or with a brush and prepared chalk, as suits 
your convenience. This gives the work an excellent appearance. 



To Prepare Chalk for Cleaning. — Pulverize your chalk thor- 
oughly, and then mix it with clear rain water in tlie proportion of 
two pounds to the gallon. Stir well and then let stand about two 
minutes. In this time the gritty matter will have settled to the bot- 
tom. Pour the water into another vessel, slowly so as not to stir 
up the settlings. Let stand until entirely settled, and then pour off 



332 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 

as before. The settlings in the second vessel will he your pre- 
pared chalk, ready for use as soon as dried. 

Spanish whiting treated in the same way makes a very good 
cleaning or polishing powder. Some operatives add a little 
jeweler's rouge, and we think it an improvement; it gives the pow- 
der a nice color at least, and therefore adds to its importance in the 
eyes of the uninitiated. In cases where a sharper polishing pow- 
der is required, it may be prepared in the same way from rotten 
stone. 

Pivot "Wood. — Watchmakers usually buy this article of watch- 
material dealers. A small shrub known as Indian arrow-wood, to 
be met with in the Northern and Western States, makes an excel- 
lent pivot wood. It must be cut when the sap is down, and split 
into quarters so as to throw the pith outside of the rod. 

Pith for Cleaning.— The stalk of the common mullen affords 
the best pith for cleaning pinions. Winter, when the stalk is dry, 
is the time to gather it. Some use cork instead of pith, but it is 
inferior. 



To Pivot.— When you find a pivot broken, you will hardly be 
at a loss to understand that the easiest mode of repairing the 
damage is to drill into the end of the pinion or staff, as the case 
may be, and having inserted a new pivot, turn it down to the pro- 
per proportions. This is by no means a difficult thing when the 
piece to be drilled is not too hard, or when the temper may be 
slightly drawn without injury to the other parts of the article. 

To Tell when the Lever is of Proper Length.— You may 
readily learn whether or not a lever is of proper length, by meas- 
uring from the guard point to the pallet staff, and then comparing 
with the roller or ruby-pin table; the diameter of the table should 
always be just half the length measured on the lever. The rule 
will work both ways, and may be useful in cases when a new ruby- 
pin table has to be supplied. 

To Change Depth of Lever Escapement.— If you are operat- 
ing on a fine watch the best plan is to put a new staff into the 
lever, cutting its pivots a little to one side — just as far as you desire 
to change the escapement. Common watches will not, of course, 
justify so much trouble. The usual process in their case is to 
knock out the staff, and with a small file cut the hole oblong in a 
direction opposite to that in which you desire to move your pallets; 
then replace the staff, wedge it to the required position, and secure 
by soft soldering. 

In instances where the staff is put in with a screw you will have 
to proceed differently. Take out the staff, pry the pallets from 
the lever, file the pin holes to slant in the direction you 
would move the pallets, without changing their size on the other 
side of the lever. Connect the pieces as they were before, and 



RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 333 

with the lever resting on some solid substance you may strike 
lightly with your hammer until the bending of the pins will allow 
the pallets to pass into position. 

To Tell -when the Lever Pallets are of Proper Size. — The 

clear space between the pallets should correspond with the outside 
measure, on the points, of three teeth of the scape wheel. The 
usual mode of measuring for new pallets is to set the wheel as 
close as possible to free itself when in motion. You can arrange it 
in your depthing tool, after which a measurement between the 
pivot holes of the two pieces, on the pillar plate, will show you ex- 
actly what is required. 

To Put "Watches in Beat.— If a cylinder escapement, or a de- 
tached lever, put the balance into a position ; then turn the regula- 
tor so that it will point directly to the pivot-hole of the pallet staff, 
if a lever, or of the scape-wheel, if a cylinder. Then lift out the 
balance with its bridge or clock, turn it over and set the ruby -pin 
directly in the line with the regulator, or the square cut of the 
cylinder at right angles with it. Your watch will then be in per- 
fect beat. 

In case of an American or an English lever, when the regulator 
is placed upon the plate, you will have to proceed differently. Fix 
the balance into its place, cut off the connection of the train, if the 
mainspring is not entirely down, by slipping a fine broach into one 
of the wheels, look between the plates and ascertain how the level 
stands. If the end furthest from the balance is equi-distant be- 
tween the two brass pins it is all right — if not, change the hair- 
spring till it becomes so. 

If dealing with a duplex watch, you must see that the roller 
notch, when the balance is at rest is exactly between the locking 
tooth and the line of centre— that is, a line drawn from the centre 
of the roller to the centre of the scape- wheel. The balance must 
start from its rest and move through an arc of about ten degrees 
before bringing the locking tooth into action. 



To Prevent a Chain Running off the Fusee.— In the first 
place you must look after and ascertain the cause of the difficulty. 
If it results from the chain's being too large, the only difficulty is 
a new chain. If it is not too large, and yet runs off without any 
apparent cause, change it end for end — that will generally make it 
go all right. In cases where the channel in the fusee has been 
damaged and is rough, you will be under the necessity of dressing 
it over with a file the proper size and shape. Sometimes vou find 
the chain naturally inclined to work away from the body of the 
fusee. The best way to remedy a difficulty of this kind is to file off 
a very little from the outer lower edge of the chain the entire 
length— this, as you can see, will incline it to work on instead of 
off. Some workmen, when they have a bad case, and a common 
watch, change the standing of the fusee so as to cause the winding 
end of its arbor to incline a little from the barrel. This, of course, 
cannot do otherwise than make the chain run to its place. 



334 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 

To Weaken the Hair-Spring. — This is often effected by grind- 
ing the spring down. You remove the spring from the coilet, and 
place it upon a piece of pivot wood cut to fit the centre coil. A 
piece of soft steel wire, flattened so as to pass freely between the 
coils, and armed with a little pulverized oil stone and oil, will 
serve as your grinder, and with it you may soon reduce the 
strength of the spring. Your operations will, of course, be con- 
fined to the centre coil, for no other part of the spring will rest 
sufficiently against the wood to enable you to grind it, but this will 
generally suffice. The effect will be more rapid than one would 
suppose, therefore it will stand you in hand to be careful or you 
may get the spring too weak before you suspect it. 

To Tighten a Ruby Pin.— Set the ruby pin in asphaltum var- 
nish. It will become hard in a few minutes, and be much firmer 
and better than gum shellac, as generally used. 

To Temper Brass or to Draw its Temper.— Brass is ren- 
dered hard by hammering or rolling, therefore when you make a 
thing of brass, necessary to be in temper, you must prepare the 
material before shaping the article. Temper may be drawn from 
brass by heating it to a cherry red, and then simply plunging it 
into water the same as though you were going to temper steel. 

To Temper Drills.— Select none but the finest and best steel 
for your drills. In making them never heat higher than a cherry 
red, and always hammer till nearly cold. Do all your hammering 
in one way, for if, after you have flattened your piece out, you at- 
tempt to hammer it back to a square or a round you spoil it. 
When your drill is in proper shape heat it to a cherry red, and 
thrust it into a piece of resin, or into quicksilver. 

Some use a solution of cyanuret potassa and rain water for tem- 
pering their drills, but for my part I have always found the resin 
or quicksilver to work best. 

To Temper Gravers. — Gravers and other instruments larger than 
drills, may be tempered in quicksilver as above; or you may use 
lead instead of quicksilver. Cut down into the lead, say half an 
inch; then, having heated your instrument to a light cherry red, 
press it firmly into the cut. The lead will melt around it, and an 
excellent temper will be imparted. 

Other Methods to Temper Case Springs.— Having fitted the 
spring into the case according to your liking, temper it hard by 
heating and plunging into water. Next polish the small end so 
that you may be able to see when the color changes; lay it on a 
piece of copper or brass plate, and hold the plate over your lamp, 
with the blaze directly under the largest part of the spring. Watch 
the polished part of the steel closely, and when you see it turn blue 
remove the plate from the lamp, letting all cool gradually together. 
When cool enough to handle polish the end of the spring again, 



^RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 335 

place it on the plate and hold it over the lamp as before. The third 
blueing of the polished end will leave the spring in proper temper. 
Any steel article to which you desire to give a spring temper may 
be treated in the same way. 

Another process said to be good, is to temper the spring as in the 
first instance; then put it in a small iron ladle, cover it with linseed 
oil and hold over a lamp till the ^»il takes fire. Remove the ladle, 
but let the oil continue to burn until nearly all consumed, when 
blow out, re-cover with oil and hold over the lamp as before. 
The third burning out of the oil will leave the spring in the right 
temper. 

To Temper Clicks, Ratchets, &c. — Clicks, Ratchets, or other 
steel articles requiring a similar degree of hardness should be tem- 
pered in mercurial ointment. The process consists in simply heating 
to a cherry red and plunging into the ointment. No other mode will 
combine toughness and hardness to such an extent. 

To Draw the Temper from Delicate Steel Pieces without 
Springing them. — Place the article from which you desire to draw 
the temper into a common iron clock key. Fill around it with brass 
or iron filings, and then plug up the open end with a steel, iron or 
brass plug, made to fit closely. Take the handle of the key with 
your plyers and hold its pipe into the blaze of a lamp till near hot, 
then let it cool gradually. When sufficiently cold to handle, re- 
move the plug, and you will find the article with its temper fully 
drawn, but in all other respects just as it was before. 

You will understand the reason for having the article thus 
plugged up while passing it through the heating and cooling pro- 
cess, when we tell you that springing always results from the action 
of changeable currents of atmosphere. The temper may be drawn 
from cylinders, staffs, pinions, or any other delicate pieces by this 
mode with perfect safety. 

To Temper Staffs, Cylinders or Pinions, without Spring- 
ing them. — Prepare the articles as in the preceding process, using 
a steel plug. Having heated the key-pipe to a cherry red, plunge it 
into water; then polish the end of your steel plug, place the key 
upon a plate of brass or copper, and hold it over your lamp with 
the blaze immediately under the pipe till the polished part becomes 
blue. Let cool gradually, then polish again. Blue and cool a sec- 
ond time, and the work will be done. 

To Draw the Temper from Part of a Small Steel Article. 

—Hold the part from which you wish to draw the temper, with a 
pair of tweezers, and with your blow-pipe direct the flame upon 
them— not the article — till sufficient heat is communicated to the 
article to produce the desired effect. 

To Blue Screws Evenly.— Take an old watch barrel and drill 
as many holes into the head of it as you desire to blue screws at a 
time. Fill it about one-fourth full of brass or iron filings, put in the 



336 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 

head, and then fit a wire, long enough to bend over for a handle, 
into the arbor holes — head of the barrel upwards. Brighten the 
heads of your screws, set them, point downwards, into tiie holes 
already drilled, and expose the bottom of the barrel to your lamp 
till the screws assume the color you wish. 

To Remove Blueing from Steel.— Immerse in a pickle com- 
posed of equal parts muriatic acid and elixir vitriol. Rinse in pure 
water and dry in tissue paper. 

To Make Diamond Broaches.— Make your broaches of brass 
the size and shape you desire; then, having oiled them slightly, roll 
their points into fine diamond dust till entirely covered. Hold them 
then on the face of your anvil and tap with a light hammer till the 
grains disappear in the brass. Great caution will be necessary in 
this operation. Do not tap heavy enough to flatten the broach. 
Very light blows are all that will be required ; the grains will be 
driven in much sooner than one would imagine. 

Some roll the broach between two smooth pieces of steel to imbed 
the diamond dust. It is a very good way, but somewhat more 
wasteful of the dust. 

Broaches made on this plan are used for dressing out jewels. 

To Make Polishing Broaches.— These are usually made of ivory, 
and used with diamond dust, loose, instead of having been driven 
in. You oil the broach lightly, dip it into the finest diamond dust 
and proceed to work into the jewel the same as you do the brass 
broach. Unfortunately, too many watchmakers fail to attach suffi- 
cient importance to the polishing broach. The sluggish motion of 
watches now-a-days, is more often attributable to rough jewels 
than to any other cause. 

To Make Diamond Piles.— Shape your file of brass, and charge 
with diamond dust, as in the case of the mill. Grade the dust in 
accordance with the coarse or fine character of the file desired. 

To Make Pivot Files.— Dress up a piece of wood file-fashion, 
about an inch brood, and glue a piece of fine emery paper upon it. 
Shape your file then, os you wish it, of the best cast steel, and be- 
fore tempering pass your emery paper heavily across it several 
times, diagonally. Temper by heating to a cherry red, and, plung- 
ing into linseed oil. Old worn pivot files may be made over and 
made new by this process. At first thought one would be led to 
regard them too slightly cut to work well, but not so. They dress 
a pivot more rapidly than any other file. 

To Make Burnishers. — Proceed the same as in making pivot 
files, with the exception that you are to use fine flour of emery on 
a slip of oiled brass or copper, instead of the emery paper. Bur- 
nishers which have become too smooth may be improved vastly 
With the flour of emery as above without drawing the temper. 



RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 337 

To Prepare a Burnisher for Polishing. — Melt a little bees- 
wax on the face of your burnisher. Its effect then, on brass or 
other finer metals, will be equal to the best buff. A small bur- 
nisher prepared in this way is the very thing with which to polish 
up watch wheels. Rest them on a piece of pith while polishing. 

To Clean a Clock. — Take the movement of the clock "to- 
pieces." Brush the wheels and pinions thoroughly with a stiff, 
coarse brush; also the plates into which the trains work. Clean 
the pivots well by turning in a piece of cotton cloth held tightly 
between your thumb and finger, The pivot holes in the plates are 
generally cleansed by turning a piece of wood in them, but I have 
always found a strip of cloth or a soft cord drawn lightly through 
them to act the best. If you use two cords, the first one slightly 
oiled, and the next dry to ciean the oil out, all the better. Do not 
use salt or acid to clean your clock — it can do no good, but may do 
a great deal of harm. Boiling the movement in water, as some 
practice, is also foolishness. 

To Bush. — The hole through which the great arbors or wind- 
ing axles work, are the only ones that usually require bushing. 
When they have become too much worn the great wheel on the 
axle before-named strikes too deeply into the pinions above it, and 
stop the clock. To remedy this bushing is necessary, of course. 
The most common way of doing it is to drive a steel point or punch 
into the plate just above the axle hole, thus forcing the brass down- 
ward until the hole is reduced to its original size. Another mode 
is to solder a piece of brass upon the plate in such a position as to 
hold the axle down to its proper place. If you simply wish your 
clock to run, and have no ambition to produce a bush that will look 
workmanlike, about as good a way as any is to fit a piece of hard 
wood beetween the post which comes through the top of the plate and 
the axle. Make it long enough to hold the axle to its proper place, 
and so that the axle will run on the end of the grain. Cut notches 
where the pivots come through, and secure by wrapping around it 
and the plate a piece of small wire, or a thread. There is no post 
coming through above the axle on the striking side, but this will 
rarely require bushing. I have known clocks to run well on this 
kind of bushing, botchified as it may appear, for ten years. 

To Remedy "Worn Pinions.— Turn the leaves or rollers so the 
worn places upon them will be towards the arbor or shaft, and 
fasten them in that position. If they are "rolling pinions," and 
you cannot secure them otherwise, you had better do it with a little 
soft solder. 

To Oil Properly.— Oil only, and very lightly, the pallets of the 
verge, the steel pin upon which the verge works, and the point 
where the loop of the verge wire works over the pendulum wire. 
Use none but the best watch oil. Though you might be working 
constantly at the clock repairing business, a bottle costing you but 
25 cents, would last you two years at least. You can buy it at any 
watch-furnishing establishment. 



338 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 

To Make the Clock Strike Correctly. — If not very cautious 
in putting up your clock you will get some of the striking-train 
wheels in wrong, and thus produce a derangement in the striking. 
If this should happen, pry the plates apart on the striking side, 
slip the pivots of the upper wheels out, and having disconnected 
them from the train, turn them part around and put them back. If 
still not right, repeat the experiment. A few efforts at most will 
get them to working properly. 



A Defect to Look After.— Always examine the pendulum- wire 
at the point where the loop of the verge wire works over it. You 
will generally find a small notch, or at least a rough place worn 
there. Dress it out perfectly smooth, or your clock will not be 
likely to work well. Small as this defect may seem, it stops a large 
number of clocks. 



To Refine Gold.— If you desire to refine your gold from the 
baser metals, swedge or roll it out very thin, then cut into narrow 
strips and curl up so as to prevent its lying flatly. Drop the pieces 
thus prepared into a vessel containing good nitric acid, in the pro- 
portion of acid 2 oz., and pure rainwater^ oz. Suffer to remain 
until thoroughly dissolved, which will be the case in y ? hour to 1 
hour. Then pour off the liquid carefully and you will find the 
gold in the form of a yellow powder lying at the bottom of the 
vessel. Wash this with pure water till it ceases to have an acid 
taste, after which you may melt and cast into any form you choose. 
Gold treated in this way may be relied on as perfectly pure. 

In melting gold use none other than a charcoal fire, and during 
the process sprinkle saltpetre and potash into the crucible occa- 
sionally. Do not attempt to melt with stone coal, as it renders the 
metal brittle and otherwise imperfect. 



To Refine Silver.— Dissolve in nitric acid as in the case of the 
gold. When the silver has entirely disappeared, add to the water. 
Sink, then, a sheet of clean copper into it— the silver will collect 
rapidly upon the copper, and you can scrape it off and melt into 
bulk at pleasure. 

In the event you were refining gold in accordance with the fore- 
going formula, and the impurity was silver, the only steps neces* 
sary to save the latter would be to add the above-named proportion 
of water to the solution poured from the gold, and then to proceed 
with your copperplate as just directed. 

To Refine Copper.— This process differs from the one em- 
ployed to refine silver in no respects save the place to be immersed; 
yoii use an iron instead of a copper plate to collect the metal. 

If the impurities of gold refined were both silver and copper, you 
might, after saving the silver as above directed, sink your iron piate 
into the solution yet remaining, and take out the copper. The parts 
of alloyed gold may be separated by these processes, and leave each 
In a perfectly pure state. 



EECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 339 

To Hard Solder Gold, Silver, Copper, Brass, Iron, Steel, 
or Platina. — The solders to be used for gold, silver, copper and 
brass are given in the preceding part. You commence operations 
by reducing your solder to small particles and mixing it with 
powdered sal-ammoniac and powdered borax in equal parts, moist- 
ened to make it hold together. Having fitted up the joint to be 
soldered, you secure the article upon a piece of soft charcoal, lay 
your soldering mixture immediately over the joint, and then with 
your blow pipe turn the flames of your lamp upon it until fusion 
takes place. The job is then done and ready to be cooled and 
dressed up. 

Iron is usually soldered with copper or brass, in accordance with 
the above process. The best solder for steel is pure gold or pure 
silver, though gold or silver solders are often used successfully. 

Platina can only be soldered well with gold; and the expense of 
it, therefore, contributes to the hindrance of a general use of platina 
vessels, even for chemical purposes, where they are of so much im- 
portance. 

To Soft Solder Articles. — Moisten the parts to be united with 
soldering fluid; then, having joined them together, lay a small piece 
of solder upon the joint and hold over your lamp, or direct the hlaze 
upon it with your blow pipe until fusion is apparent. Withdraw 
them from the blaze immediately, as too much heat will render the 
solder brittle and unsatisfactory'. When the parts to be joined can 
be made to spring or press against each other, it is best to place a 
thin piece of solder between them before exposing to the lamp. 

Where two smooth surfaces are to be soldered one upon the other, 
you may make an excellent job by moistening them with the fluid, 
and then, having placed a sheet of tin foil between them, holding 
them pressed firmly together over your lamp till the foil melts. If 
the surfaces fit nicely a joint may be made in this way so close as to 
be almost imperceptible. The brightest looking lead which comes 
as a lining to tin boxes works better in the same way than tin foil. 

To Cleanse Gold Tarnished in Soldering.— The old English 
mode was to expose all parts of the article to a uniform heat, allow 
it to cool and then boil until bright in urine and sal-ammoniac. It 
is now usually cleansed with diluted sulphuric acid. The pickle is 
made in about the proportion of one-eighth of an oz. acid to 1 oz. 
rain water. 



To Cleanse Silver Tarnished in Soldering.— Some expose to 
a uniform heat, as in the case of gold, and then boil in strong alum 
water. Others immerse for a considerable length of time in a liquid 
made of y 2 an oz. of cyanuret potassa to 1 pt. rain water, and then 
brush off with prepared chalk. 

To Make Gold Solution for Electro-Plating.— Dissolve five 
pennyweights gold coin, five grains pure copper and 4 grains pure 
6ilver in 3 oz. nitro muriatic acid; which is simply two parts muria- 



340 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 

tic acid and one part nitric acid. The silver will not be taken into 
solution as are the other two metals, but will gather at the bottom 
of the vessel. Add 1 oz. pulverized sulphate of iron, % oz. pul- 
verized borax, 25 grs. pure table salt, and 1 qt. hot rain water. 
Upon this the gold and copper will be thrown to the bottom of the 
vessel with the silver. Let stand till fully settled, then pour off the 
liquid carefully, and refill with boiling rain water as before Con- 
tinue to repeat this operation until the precipitate is thoroughly 
washed; or, in other words, fill up, let settle, and pour off so long 
as the accumulation at the bottom of the vessel is acid to the taste. 

You now have about an eighteen carat chloride of gold. Add 
to it an oz. and an eighth cyanuret potassa, and 1 qt. rain water— 
the latter heated to the boiling point. Shake up well, then let stand 
about twenty-four hours and it will be ready for use. 

Some use platina as an alloy instead of silver, under the impres- 
sion that plating done with it is harder. I have used both, but never 
could see much difference. 

Solution for a darker colored plate to imitate Guinea gold may 
be made by adding to the above 1 oz. of dragon's blood and five 
grains of iodide of iron. 

If you desire an alloyed plate, proceed as first directed, without 
the silver or copper, and with an oz. and a half of sulphuret potassa 
in place of the iron, borax and salt. 



To Make Silver Solution for Electro-Plating.— Put together 
into a glass vessel, one oz. good silver, made thin and cut into 
strips; two oz. best nitric acid and >£ an oz. pure rain water. If 
solution does not begin at once, add a little more water — continue 
to add a very little at a time till it does. In the event it starts off 
well, but stops before the silver is fully dissolved, you may generally 
start it up again all right by adding a little more water. 

When solution is entirely effected, add 1 qt. warm rain water and 
a large tablespoonful of table salt. Shake well and let settle, then 
proceed to pour off and wash through other waters as in the case of 
the gold preparation. When no longer acid to the taste, put in an 
oz. and an eighth cyanuret potassa and a qt. pure rain water; after 
standing about twenty-four hours it will be ready for use. 

To Plate with a Battery.— If the plate is to be gold, use the 
gold solution for electroplating; if silver use the silver solution. 
Prepare the article to be plated by immersing it for several minutes 
in a strong lye made of potash and rain water, polishing off 
thoroughly at the end of the time with a soft brush and prepared 
chalk. Care should be taken not to let the fingers come in contact 
with the article while polishing, as that has a tendency to prevent 
the plate from adhering — it should be held in two or three thick- 
nesses of tissue paper. 

Attach the article, when thoroughly cleansed, to the positive pole 
of your battery, then affix a piece of gold or silver, as the case may 
be, to the negative pole, and immerse both into the solution in such 
a way as not to hang in contact with each other. 

After the article has been exposed to the action of the battery 
about ten minutes, take it out and wash or polish over with a thick 



RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 341 

mixture of water and prepared chalk or jeweller's rouge. If, in 
the operation, you find places where the plating seems inclined to 
peel off, or when it has not taken well, mix a little of the plating 
solution with prepared chalk or rouge, and rub the defective part 
thoroughly with it. This will be likely to set all right. 

Govern your time of exposing the article to the battery by the 
desired thickness of the plate. During the time it should be taken 
out and polished up as just directed about every ten minutes, or as 
often at least as there is an indication of a growing darkness on 
any part of its surface. When done, finish with the burnisher on 
prepared chalk and chamois skin, as best suits your taste and con- 
venience. 

In case the article to be plated is iron, steel, lead, pewter, or 
block tin, you must, after first cleansing with the lye and chalk, 
prepare it by applying with a soft brush— a camel's hair pencil is 
best suited— a solution made of the following articles in the pro- 
portion named: Nitric acid, half an ounce; muriatic acid, one- 
third of an ounce; sulphuric acid, one-ninth of an ounce; muri- 
ate of potash, one-seventh of an ounce; sulphate of iron, one- 
fourth of an ounce; sulphuric ether, one-fifth of an ounce, and as 
much sheet zinc as it will dissolve. This prepares a foundation, 
without which the plate would fail to take well, if at all. 

To Make Gold Amalgam. — Eight parts of gold and one of mer- 
cury are formed into an amalgam for plating, by rendering the 
gold into thin plates, making it red hot and then putting it into the 
mercury while the latter is also heated to ebullition. The gold im- 
mediately disappears in combination with the mercury, after which 
the mixture may be turned into water to cool. It is then ready for 
use. 



/ 



To Plate "With Gold Amalgam.— Gold amalgam is chiefly used 
as a plating for silver, copper, or brass. The article to be plated is 
washed over with diluted nitric acid or potash lye and prepared 
chalk, to remove any tarnish or rust that might prevent the amal- 
gam from adhering." After having been polfshed perfectly bright, 
the amalgam is applied as evenly as possible, usually with a fine 
scratch brush. It is then set upon a grate over a charcoal fire, or 
placed into an oven and heated to that degree at which mercury 
exhales. The gold, when the mercury has evaporated, presents a 
dull yellow color. Cover it with a coating of pulverized nitre and 
alum" in equal parts, mixed to a paste with water, and beat again 
till it is thoroughly melted, then plunge into water. Burnish up 
with a steel or bloodstone burnisher. 

\ 

To Make and Apply Gold Plating Solution.— Dissolve half 
an ounce of gold amalgam in one ounce of nitro-muriatic acid. 
Add two ounces of alcohol, and then, having brightened the article 
in the usual way, apply the solution with a soft brush. Einse and 
dry in saw-dust, or with tissue paper, and polish up with chamois 
skin. 



/ 



342 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 

To Make and Apply Gold Plating Powders. — Prepare a 

chloride of gold the same as for plating with a battery. Add to it, 
when thoroughly washed out, cyanuret potassa in the proportion of 
two ounces to five pennyweights of gold. Pour in a pint of clean rain 
water, shake up well and then let stand till the chloride is dissolved. 
Add then one pound of prepared Spanish whiting and let evapo- 
rate in the open air till dry, after which put away in a tight vessel 
for use. To apply it you prepare the article in the usual way, and 
having made the powder into a paste with water, rub it upon the 
surface with a piece of chamois skin or cotton flannel. 

An old mode of making a gold plating powder was to dip clean 
linen T?,gs into solution prepared as in the second article preced- 
ing this, and having dried, to fire and burn them into ashes. The 
ashes formed the powder, and were to be applied as above. 



To Make and Apply Silver Plating Solution. — Put to 

gether in a glass vessel one ounce nitrate of silver, two ounces cya- 
nuret potassa, four ounces prepared Spanish whiting, and ten 
ounces pure rain water. Cleanse the article to be plated as per 
preceding directions, and apply with a soft brush. Finish with the 
chamois skin or burnisher. 



To Make and Apply Silver Plating Powder.— Dissolve silver 
in nitric acid by the aid of heat; put some pieces of copper into 
the solution to precipitate the silver; wash the acid out in the usual 
way; then with fifteen grains of it mix two drachms of tartar, two 
drachms of table salt, and half a drachm of pulverized alum. 
Brighten the article to be plated with lye and prepared chalk, and 
rub on the mixture. When it has assumed a white appearance, 
expose to heat as in the case of plating with gold amalgam, then 
polish up with the burnisher or soft leather. 



To Frost "Watch Movments.— Sink that part of the article to 
be frosted for a short time in a compound of nitric acid, muriatic 
acid and table salt— one ounce of each. On removing from the 
acid, place it in a shallow vessel containing enough sour beer to 
merely cover it; then with a fine scratch brush scour thoroughly, 
letting it remain under the beer during the operation. Next wash 
off, first in pure water and then in alcohol. Gild or silver in accord- 
ance with any recipe in the chapter on plating. 

\ 
To Enamel Gold and Silver, — Take half a pennyweight of 
silver, two pennyweights and a half of copper, three pennyweights 
and a half of lead, and two pennyweights and a half of muriate of 
ammonia. Melt together and pour into a crucible with twice as 
much pulverized sulphur; the crucible is then to be immediately 
covered that the sulphur may not take fire, and the mixture is to 
be calcined over a smelting' fire until the superfluous sulphur is 
burned away. The compound is then to be coarsely pounded, and 






f.. 



RECEIPTS FOE MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 343 

with a solution of muriate of ammonia to be formed into a paste 
which is to be placed upon the article it is designed to enamel. 
The article must then be held over a spirit lamp till the compound 
upon it melts and flows. After this it may be smoothed and pol- 
ished up in safety. This makes the black enamel now so much 
used on jewelry. 

To Destroy the Effects of Acid on Clothes.— Dampen as I 
soon as possible after exposure to the acid with spirits ammonia. 
It will destroy the effect immediately. 

To "Wash Silver Ware.— Never use a particle of soap on your \ 
silverware, as it dulls the lustre, giving the article more the ap- j 
pearance of pewter than silver. When it wants cleaning rub it 
with a piece of soft leather and prepared chalk, the latter made 
into a kind of paste with pure water, for the reason that water not 
pure might contain gritty particles. 

To Cleanse Brushes.— The best method of cleansing watchA 
makers' and jewelers' brushes is to wash them out in strong soda 
water. When the backs are wood you must favor that part as 
much as possible, for, being glued, the water might injure them. 

To Cut Glass Round or Oval Without a Diamond.— Scratch , 
the glass around the shape you desire with the corner of a file or 
graver; then, having bent a piece of wire in the same shape, heat 
it red hot and lay it upon the scratch, sink the glass into cold water 
just deep enough for the water to come almost upon a level with its 
upper surface. It will rarely ever fail to break perfectly true. 

To Re-Black Clock Hands.— Use asphaltum varnish. One coat 
will make old rusty hands look as good as new, and it dries in a 
few minutes. 

Improved Wood Filing Composition. — Japan, J pt.; 
boiled linseed oil, ^ pt. ; turpentine, ^ pt. ; starch, 6 oz. Mix 
well together and apply to the wood. On walnut wood add a 
little burned umber, on cherry a little Venetian red, to the above 
mixture. 

Planing Metals.— The first operation about planing is to oil 
your planer and find out if the bed is smooth. If it is not file off 
the rough places; then change the dogs to see if they will work 
well, and find out the movements of the planer. After doing this, 
bolt your work on to the bed, and if it is a long, thin piece, plane 
off a chip, then turn it over and finish the other side, taking two 
chips, the last of which should be very light. Great care should 
be taken in bolting the bed not to spring" it. After finishing this 
side turn it to the other side, and take off a light cut to finish it. 

Planing Perpendicularly. — In planing perpendicularly, it is 
necessary to swivel the bottom of the small head around, so it will 
stand about three-fourths of an inch inside of square, towards the 
piece you are to pJane. This prevents breaking the tool when the 
bed runs back. 

Gear Cutting.— In cutting gears, they are reckoned on a certain 



344 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 

number of teeth to the inch, measuring across the diameter to a 
certain line which is marked on the face or sides of the gear with a 
tool. This line is one-half the depth of the teeth from the outer 
diameter. That is, if the teeth of the gear are two-tenths of an 
inch deep, this line would be one-tenth of an inch from the edge, 
and is called the pitch line. 

Depth of Teeth.— Every gear cut with a different number of 
teeth to the inch, should be cut of a depth to the pitch line, to cor- 
respond with the number of teeth to the inch. This is called pro- 
portion. Therefore, if you cut a gear eight to the inch, the depth 
to the pitch line should be one-eighth of an inch, and the whole 
depth of the tooth would be two-eighths. Again, if you cut a gear 
twelve to the inch, the depth to pitch line should be one-twelfth of 
an inch, and the whole depth of tooth two-twelfths. And again, if 
you cut a gear twenty to the inch, the depth to pitch line should be 
one-twentieth of an inch, while the whole depth should be two- 
twentieths, and so on ad infinitum. 

Measuring to find the Number of Teeth.— To find the size a 
certain gear should be, for a certain number of t-.'eth, is an easy 
matter if you study carefully these rules. If you want a gear with 
thirty-two teeth and eight to the inch, it should be four inches, 
measuring across the diameter to the pitch line, and the two- 
eighths outside of the pitch line would make it four inches and 
two-eighths. Again, if you want a gear with forty teeth, and ten 
to the inch, it should measure across the diameter to pitch line four 
inches, and the two-tenths outside the pitch line would make the 
whole diameter four inches and two-tenths. And again, if you 
want a gear with eighty teeth, and twenty to the inch, it should 
measure to the pitch line, across the diameter, four inches, and the 
two-twentieths outside the pitch line would make it four inches and 
two-twentieths, and these examples will form a rule for the meas- 
urement of all except bevel gears. 

Bevel Gears.— These are turned a certain bevel to correspond 
with each other, according to the angle upon which the shafts 
driven by them are set. For instance, if two shafts are set upon 
an angle of ninety degrees, the surfaces of the faces of these gears 
will stand at a,n angle of forty-five degrees. To get the surface of 
these gears in turning them, put a straight edge across the face, 
then set your level on an angle of forty-five degrees, and try the 
face of the teeth by placing the level on a straight edge. After 
turning the face of the teeth, square the outer diameter by the face 
of the "teeth: and to get the size to which you wish to cut, measure 
from the centre of the face of the teeth. Thus if a bevel gear is 
six inches in diameter, and the face of the teeth is one inch, you 
will measure from the centre of the face, and find it is five inches. 
On this line you calculate the number of teeth to the inch, and if 
you want a gear with twenty teeth, and ten to the inch, it should 
measure two inches across the face to the centre of the surface of 
the teeth; and if the face of the teeth were one inch in length, the 
diameter of the gear would be three inches, and the inside of the 
teeth would measure only one inch. Again if you want to cut a 



RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 345 

gear with forty teeth, and ten to the inch, it would measure four 
inches to the centre of the teeth on the surface. And if the sur- 
face of the teeth were one inch long, the diameter of the gear 
would be five inches, while it would only measure three inches 
inside the teeth. These examples will form a rule for all bevel 
gear. 

Draw-Filing and Finishing.— To draw-file a piece of work 
smoothly and quickly, it is best to first draw-file it with a medium 
fine file, and finish with a superfine file. After doing this, polish 
the work with dry emery paper, and then with emery paper and 
oil. 

Lining Boxes with Babbitt Metal.— To line boxes properly, so 
as to insure their filling every time, it is necessary to heat the box 
nearly red hot, or at least hot enough to melt the metal. Then 
smoke the shaft where the metal is to be poured upon it. This in- 
sures its coming out of the box easily, after it is cold. After 
smoking the shaft, put it into the box or boxes, and draw some 
putty around the ends of them, for the purpose of stopping them, 
taking care not to press upon it, for if you do it will go into the box, 
and fill a place that ought to be filled with metal; and in the mean- 
time your metal ought to be heated, and after you have poured it, 
let the box stand till it is nearly cold; drive out your shaft, and it is 
done. 

Making Lining Metal.— Melt in a crucible one and a half pounds 
of copper, and while the copper is melting, melt in a ladle twenty- 
five pounds of tin, and three of antimony, nearly red hot, pour the 
two together, and stir until nearly cool. This makes the finest kind 
of lining metal. 

Putting Machines Together.— In putting machines together no 
part should be finished except where it is necessary to make a fit, 
as it is sometimes the case that machinery is miscalculated, and by 
finishing it would be spoiled, while if it were not it might be saved 
by slight alterations in design. And again, in finishing certain 
parts before you get a machine together, you are unknowingly 
finishing parts not necessary to be finished, and making them of a 
shape anything but desirable. This rule, however, is not intended 
to apply to machinery being made to detail drawings. 

To Drill a Hole where you have no Reamer.— It is some- 
times necessary to drill a hole of an exact size to fit a certain shaft, 
and at the same time have it smooth without reaming it. This may 
be done, by first drilling a hole, a one-hundredth of an inch smaller 
than the size desired, and then making a drill the exact size and 
running it through to finish with. This last drill should have the 
corners of its lips rounded, like a reamer, and the hole should be 
finished without holding the drill with a rest. 

Boring a Hole with a Boring Tool.— In boring a hole with 
a boring tool, it is usually necessary to drill the hole first, and too 
much care cannot be taken in finishing. An iron gauge should be 
made first; is usually made of a piece of sheet iron or wire. The 
hole should then be drilled smaller than the size desired, and then 
bored to the required size, and it is impossible to here a hole perfect 
24 



346 CEMENTS. 

without taking two or three light chips, mere scrapings with which 
to finish. Holes, in this way, may be bored as nicely as they can 
be reamed. 

Squaring or Facing up Cast Iron Surfaces.— A round end 
tool is best for this. A rough chip should first be taken off, over 
the entire surface to be faced. Then speed your lathe up and 
taking a light chip, merely enough to take out the first tool marks r 
run over the entire surface again. In turning up surfaces it is 
always best to begin at the centre and feed out, as the tool cuts 
freer and will wear twice as long. 

Boring Holes with Boring Arbor.— A boring arbor is a 
shaft with a steel set in it, for the purpose of boring holes of great 
length, and is designed to be used in a lathe. In doing this pro- 
perly, you must first see if your lathe is set straight. If not, adjust 
it; having done this, put the piece of work to be bored in the car- 
riage of your lathe, pass your arbor through the hole to be bored, 
and put it on the centres of your lathe. Having done this, adjust 
your work true to the position desired by measuring from the point 
of the tool, continually turning round the arbor from side to side of 
the piece to be bored, while you are bolting it to the carriage, and 
measure until it is perfectl • true. Having done this, bore the hole, 
and take for the last chip only a hundredth of an inch. This makes 
a true and smooth hole. It is impossible to make a hole true with 
any kind of a tool when you are cutting a large chip, for the tool 
springs so that no dependence can be placed upon it. 

To make a Boring Arbor and Tool that -will not Chat- 
ter.— Boring tools, when used in small arbors, are always liable 
to chatter and make a rough hole. To prevent this, the tool should 
be turned in a lathe, while in its position in the arbor, upon the 
circle of the size of the hole to be bored, and the bearing lengthwise 
of the arbor should be only as wide as the feed of the lathe; for if 
the bearing of the tool is on the face, the more it will chatter. 



/ 



CEMENTS. 

[See other pages also.] 



Rust Joint.— Quick Setting.— 1 lb. sal ammoniac in powder, 
2 lbs. of flour of sulphur, 80 lbs. iron borings. Made to a paste 
with water. Slow Setting. — 2 lbs. sal ammoniac, 1 lb. of sulphur, 
200 lbs. iron borings. This latter cement is best if the joint is not 
required for immediate use. 

For Steam Boilers, Steam Pipes, Etc.— Soft.— Bed or white 
lead in oil, 4 parts; ironboiings, 2 to 3 parts. Hard. — Iron borings 
and salt water, and a small quantity of sal ammoniac with fresh 
water. 

Maltha, or Greek Mastic— Lime and sand mixed in the man- 
ner of mortar, and made into a proper consistency with milk or 
size without water. 



, 



BEOWNING. 347 

For China. — Curd of milk, dried and powdered, 10 oz.; quick- 
lime, 1 oz. ; camphor, 2 drachms. Mix, and keep in closely stopped 
bottles. When used, a portion is to be mixed with a little water 
into a paste. 

For Earthen and Glassware.— Heat the article to be mended 
a little above 212°, then apply a thin coating of gum shellac upon 
both surfaces of the broken vessel. Or, dissolve gum shellac in 
alcohol, apply the solution, and bind the parts firmly together until 
the cement is dry. 

Holes in Casting.— Sulphur in powder, 1 part; sal ammoniac, 2 
parts; powdered iron turnings, 80 parts. Make into a thick paste. 
The ingredients composing this cement should be kept separate, 
and not mixed until required for use. 

For Marble. — Plaster of Pasis, in a saturated solution of alum, 
baked in an oven, and reduced to powder. Mixed with water. It 
may be mixed with various colors. 

For Marble Workers and Coppersmiths. — White of egg, 
mixed with finely sifted quicklime, will unite objects which are not 
submitted to moisture. 

Transparent for Glass.— India rubber, 1 part in 64 of chloro- 
form; add gum mastic in powder, 16 to 24 parts. Digest for two 
days with frequent shaking. 

To Mend Iron Ware.— Sulphur, 2 parts; fine black lead, 1 part. 
Put the sulphur in an iron pan, over a fire, until it melts, then add 
the lead; stir well; then pour out. When cool, break into small 
pieces. A sufficient quantity of this compound being placed upon 
the crack of the ware to be mended, can be soldered by an iron. 

For Cisterns and Water Casks. — Melted glue, 8 parts; lin- * 
seed oil, 4 parts; boiled into a varnish with litharge. This cement 
hardens in about 48 hours, and renders the joints of wooden cisterns 
and casks air and water tight. 

Hydraulic Cement Paint.— Hydraulic cement mixed with oil 1 
forms an incombustible and waterproof paint for roofs of buildings, 
out-houses, walls, etc. 

Entomologists' Cement.— Thick mastic varnish and isinglass 
size, equal parts. 



BEOWNING. 

[See other pages also.] 

Browning, or Bronzing Liquid. — Sulphate of copper, 1 cz.; 
sweet spirit of nitre, 1 oz. ; water, 1 pint. Mix. In a few days it 
will be fit for use. 



348 GLUES. 

Browning for Gun Barrels.— Tinct. of mur. of iron, 1 oz.; 
nitric ether, 1 oz.; sulphate of copper, 4 scruples; rain water, 1 
pint. If the process is to be hurried, add 2 or 3 grains of oxymuri- 
ate of mercury. When the barrel is finished, let it remain a short 
time in lime water, to neutralize any acid which may have pene- 
trated; then rub it well with an iron wire scratch brush. 

Hardening Compound used in Damascus Sword Blades. 

— The blade is covered with a paste formed of equal parts of barilla, 
powdered egg-shells, borax, common salt, and crude soda; heated 
to a moderate red heat, and just as the red is turning to a black 
heat, quench it in spring water. 

LACKEES. 

~> 

For Small Arms, or Waterproof Paper.— Beeswax, 13 lbs.; 
spirits of turpentine, 13 gallons; boiled linseed oil, 1 gallon. All the 
ingredients should be pure and of the best quality. Heat them to- 
gether, in a copper or earthen vessel over a gentle fire, in a water- 
bath, until they are well mixed. 

For Bright Iron Work.— Linseed oil, boiled, 80.5; litharge, 5.5; 
white lead, in oil, 11.25; resin, pulverized, 2.75. Add the litharge 
to the oil; let it simmer over a slow fire 3 hours; strain it, and add 
the resin and white lead; keep it gently warmed, and stir it until 
the resin is dissolved. 

INKS. 

Indelible, for Marking Linen, Etc.— 1. Juice of sloes, 1 pint; 
gum, y 2 an ounce. This requires no "preparation" or mordant, 
and is very durable. 2. Nitrate of silver, 1 part; water, 6 parts; 
gum, 1 part. Dissolve. Marking. — Lunar caustic, 2 parts; sap 
green and gum arabic, each 1 part: dissolve with distilled water. 
The "Preparation." — Soda, 1 ounce; water, 1 pint; sap green, 
K drachm. Dissolve, and wet the article to be marked, then dry 
and apply the ink. 

Perpetual, for Tomb Stones, Marble, etc.— Pitch, 11 parts; 
lampblack, 1 part; turpentine sufficient. Warm and stir. 

( Copying Ink.— Add 1 oz. of sugar to a pint of ordinary ink. 

GLUES. 

[See other pages also.] 

For Parchment. — Parchment shavings, 1 lb.; water, 6 quarts. 
Boil until dissolved, then strain and evaporate slowly to the proper 
consistence. 

Rice Glue, or Japanese Cement. — Rice flour; water, sufficient 
quantity. Mix together cold, then boil, stirring it all the time. 



VARNISHES. 349 

Liquid.— Glue, water, and vinegar, each 2 parts. Dissolve in a 
water-bath, then add aicohol, 1 part. Or, cologne or strong glue, 
2.2 lbs.; water, 1 quart; dissolved over a gentle heat; add nitric 
acid 36°, 7 oz., in small quantities. Remove from the fire and cool. 
Or, white glue, 16 oz.; white lead, dry, -1 oz.; rain water, 2 pints. 
Add alcohol, 4 oz., and continue the heat for a few minutes. 

Marine.— Dissolve India-rubber, 4 parts, in 34 parts of coal-tar 
naphtha; add powdered shellac, 64 parts. While the mixture is hot it 
is poured upon metal plates in sheets. When required for use, it is 
heated, and then applied with a brush. Or, 1 part India-rubber, 12 
parts of coal-tar; heat gently, mix, and add 20 parts of powdered 
shellac. Pour out to cool. When used, heat to about 250°. Or, 
glue, 12 parts; water, sufficient to dissolve; and yellow resin, 3 
parts; and, when melted, add turpentine, 4 parts. Mix thoroughly 
together. 

( Strong G-ltje.— Add powdered chalk to common glue. 

Gum Mucilage.— A little oil of cloves poured into a bottle con- 
taining gum mucilage, prevents it from becoming sour. 

Glue to Resist Moisture.— 5 parts glue, 4 parts resin, 2 parts 
red ochre, mixed with the least practicable quantity of water. 
Or, 4 parts of glue, 1 part of boiled oil by weight, 1 part oxide 
of iron. Or, 1 lb. of glue melted in 2 quarts"of skimmed milk. 



VAKNISHES. 

[See other pages also.] 

Waterproof.— Flour of sulphur, 1 lb.; Linseed-oil, 1 gal.; 
boil thorn until they are thoroughly combined. This forms a 
good varnish for waterproof textile fabrics. Another is made of 
oxide of lead, 4 lbs. ; lamp-black, 2 lbs. ; sulphur, 5oz.; and India- 
rubber dissolved in turpentine, 10 lbs. Boil together until they are 
thoroughly combined. 

To Adhere Engravings or Lithographs upon Wood — 
Sandarach, 250 parts; mastic in tears, 64; resin, 125; Venice tur- 
pentine, 250; and. alcohol, 1000 parts by measure. 

For Harness.— India-rubber, }4 lb.; spirits of turpentine, 1 
gal.; dissolve into a jelly; then take hot linseed oil, equal parts 
with the mass, and incorporate them well over a slow fire. 

For Fastening Leather on Top Rollers.— Gum Arabic, 2% 
oz., dissolved in water, and a like volume of isinglass dissolved 
in water. 

To Preserve Glass from the Rays of the Sun.— Reduce 
a quantity of gum tragacanth to fine powder, and let it dissolve for 
24 hours in white of eggs well beat up. 

For Water-Color Drawings.— Canada balsam, 1 part: oil of 
turpentine, 2 parts, mixed. Size the drawing before applying the 
varnish. 



350 PAINTING. 

For Objects of Natural History, for Shells, Fish, &c— 

Mucilage of gum tragacanth and mucilage of gum arabic, each 1 
oz. Mix, and add spirit with corrosive sublimate, so as to precipi- 
tate the more stringy part of the gum. 

For Articles of Iron and Steel.— Clear grains of mastic, 10 
parts; camphor, 5 parts; sandarach, 15 parts; and elemi, 5 parts. 
Dissolve in a sufficient quantity of alcohol, and apply without 
heat. This varnish will retain its transparancy, and the metallic 
brilliancy of the article will not be obscured. 

For Gun Barrels, after Browning. — Shellac, 1 oz.; Dragon's 
blood, yi oz.; rectified spirit, 1 quart. Dissolve and filter. 

Black. — Heat to boiling, 10 parts of linseed oil varnish with 
burnt umber, 2 parts, and powdered asphaltum, 1 part. When 
cooled, dilute with spirits of turpentine as required. 

Balloon. — Melt India-rubber in small pieces with its weight of 
boiled linseed oil. Thin with oil of turpentine. 

Transfer.— Alcohol, 5 oz.; pure Venice turpentine, 4 oz.; mas- 
tic, 1 oz. 

To Clean Varnish. — Mix a lye of potash, or soda, with a little 
powdered chalk. 

Composition for Rendering Canvas "Waterproof and 
Pliable. — Yellow soap, 1 lb., boiled in 6 pints of water, add, 
while hot, to 112 lbs. of paint. 

■ 

Good Painting requires 4 or 5 coats; but usually only 4 are 
used in principal rooms ; and 3 in inferior ones. Each coat must 
be allowed to dry perfectly before the next one is put on. One lb. 
of the keg paint will, after being thinned, cover about 2 sq. yds. of 
first coat; 3 yds. of second ; and 4 yds. of each subsequent coat; or 
1 sq. yd. of 3 coats will require in all, 1-08 lbs. ; of 4 coats, \\ lbs. ; 
of 5 coats, 1*58 lbs. The reason why the first coats require so much 
more than the subsequent ones, is that the bare surface of the wood 
absorbs it more. 

Painting of Brick Work. — A square yard of new brick wall 
requires for the first coat of paint in oil, f lb. ; and for the second, 
•3; and for the third, -4. 



MISCELLANEOUS. 351 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

To Clean Marble. — Chalk, powdered, and pumice-stone, each 
1 part; soda, 2 parts. Mix with water. Wash the spots, then 
clean and wash off with soap and water. 

To Extract Grease from Stone or Marble. — Soft soap, 1 
part; Fuller's earth, 2 parts; potash, 1 part. Mix with boiling 
water. Lay it upon the spots, and let it remain for a few hours. 

Paint for Window Glass. — Chrome green, % oz.; sugar of 
lead, 1 lb.; ground fine, in sufficient linseed oil to moisten it. Mix 
to the consistency of cream, and apply with a soft brush. The 
glass should be well cleaned before the paint is applied. The 
above quantity is sufficient for about 200 feet of glass. 

Durable Paste. — Make common flour paste rather thick (by 
mixing some flour with a little cold water until it is of uniform con- 
sistency, and then stir it well while boiling water is being added to 
it;) add a little brown sugar and corrosive sublimate, which will 
prevent fermentation, and a few drops of oil of lavender, which 
will prevent it becoming mouldy. When this paste dries, it may be 
used again by dissolving it in water. It will keep for two or three 
years in a covered vessel. / 

Dubbing.— Eesin, 2 lbs. ; tallow, 1 lb. ; train-oil, 1 gallon. 

Blacking for Harness. — Bees' wax, y 2 lb.; ivory black, 2 oz.; 
spirits of turpentine, 1 oz. ; Prussian blue ground in oil, 1 oz. ; copal 
varnish, \i oz. Melt the wax and stir it into the other ingredi- 
ents before the mixture is quite cold; make it into balls. Rub a 
little upon a brush, and apply it upon the harness, then polish lightly 
with silk. 

To Prevent Iron from Rusting.— Warm it; then rub with 
white wax; put it again to the fire until the wax has pervaded the 
entire surface. Or, immerse tools or bright work in boiled linseed 
oil and allow it to dry upon them. 

Paper for Draughtsmen, &c. — Powdered tragacanth, 1 part; 
water, 10 parts; dissolve, and strain through clean gauze, then lay 
it smoothly upon the paper, previously stretched upon a board. 
This paper will take either oil or water-colors. 

To Remove Old Ironmould.— Remoisten the part stained with 
ink, remove this by the use of muriatic acid diluted by 5 or 6 times 
its weight of water, when the old and new stain will be removed. 

Pastiles for Fumigating.— Gum arabic, 2 oz.; charcoal powder, 
5 oz. ; cascarilla bark, powdered % oz. ; saltpetre, % drachm. Mix to- 
gether with water, and make into shape. 

For Writing Upon Zinc Labels— Horticultural.— Dissolve 
100 gr. of chloride of platinum in a pint of water; add a little mu- 
cilage and lamp-black. Or, sal-ammoniac, 1 dr ; verdigris, 1 dr. ; 
lamp-back, % dr. ; water, 10 drs. Mix. 



352 MISCELLANEOUS. 

Booth's Grease for Railway Axles.— Water, 1 gall,; clean 
tallow, 3 lbs.; palm oil, 6 lbs.; common soda, % lb.; or, tallow, 8 
lbs.; palm oil, 10 lbs. To be heated to about 212°, and to be well 
stirred until it cools to 70°. v 

Anti-friction G-rease.— 100 lbs. tallow, 70 lbs. palm oil. Boiled 
together, and when cooled to 80°, strain through a sieve, and mix 
with 28 lbs. of Soda and iy 2 gals, of water. For winter, take 25 
lbs. more oil in place of the tallow. Or black lead, 1 part; lard, 4 
parts. 

Liard.— 50 parts of finest rape oil and 1 part of caoutchouc, cut 
small. Apply heat until it is nearly all dissolved. 

Stains. — To remove — Stains of Iodine are removed by rectified 
spirit. Ink stains by oxalic or superoxalate of potash, fronmoulda 
by the same; but if obstinate, moisten them with ink, then re- 
move them in the usual way. 

Ked spots upon black cloth from acids are removed by spirts of 
hartshorn, or other solutions of ammonia. 

Stains of Marking-ink, or nitrate of Silver.— Wet the stain \ 
with fresh solution of cloride of lime, and after 10 or 15 minutes, if 
the marks have become white, dip the part in solution of ammonia 
or of hyposulphite of soda. In a few minutes wash with clean water. 
Or stretch the stained linen over a basin of hot water, and wet the 
mark with tincture of iodine. 

Preservative Paste for Objects of Naturai History.— 

White arsenic, 1 lb. ; powdered hellebore, 2 lbs. 

Paste for Cleaning Metals.— Oxalic acid, 1 part; rottenstone, 
6 parts. Mix with equal parts of train oil and spirits of turpentine. 

"Watchmaker's Oil, which never Corrodes or Thickens.— 

Place coils of thin sheet lead in a bottle with olive oil. Expose it 
to the sun for a few weeks, and pour off the clear oil. 

Blacking, "Without Polishing.— Molasses, 4 oz.; lamp-black, 

£oz.; yeast, a tablespoon ful; eggs, 2; olive oil, a teaspoon ful ; turpentine, 
ateaspoonful. Mix well. Tobeapplied with asponge, without brushing. 

To Preserve Sails.— Slacked lime, 2 bushels. Draw off the 
lime water, and mix it with 120 gallons water, and with blue vitriol, 
Klb. 

"Whitewash.— For outside exposure, slack lime, % a bushel, in a \ 
barrel; add common salt, 1 lb.; sulphate of zinc, % lb.; and sweet 
milk, 1 gal. 

To Preserve "Woodwork..— Boiled oil and finely powdered 
charcoal, each 1 part; mix to the consistence of paint. Lay on 2 or 
3 coats with it. This composition is well adapted for casks, water- 
spouts, &c. 

To Polish Wood.— Rub surface with pumice stone and water 



MISCELLANEOUS. 353 

until the rising of the grain is removed. Then, with powdered 
tripoli and boiled linseed oil, polish to a bright surface. 

To Clean Brass Ornaments.— Brass ornaments that have not 
been gilt or lackered may be cleaned, and a very brilliant color 
given to them, by washing them in alum boiled in strong lye, in the 
proportion of an ounce to a pint, and afterward rubbing them with 
strong tripoli. 



/ 



Adhesive Cement for Fractures of all Kinds. - White lead 
ground with linseed oil varnish, and kept out of contact with the 
air. It requires a few weeks to harden. When stone or iron are to 
be cemented together, use a compound of equal parts of sulphur 
and pitch. 



ADDENDA TO PAET II. 



ALLOYS. 



Aluminium and its Alloys.— Of all the metals, properly so called, 
the compounds of which make up the crust of the earth, aluminium is 
the most abundant. It is evident, therefore, that there can be no diffi- 
culty in obtaining material to work upon. Now, taking ordinary clay 
as an instance, it can be readily shown that in every cubic yard there 
is at least 800 lbs. of aluminium, the lowest recorded price of which is 
$2.00 a pound. But the only process by which any quantity worth 
speaking about of the pure metal aluminium — in contradistinction to 
its alloys — has ever been extracted is the process of Deville, established 
about the year 1854. The main features of the process and the sequence 
of operations have remained unchanged. In the Cowles and other 
electric processes the aluminium is always produced as an alloy, with 
either copper or iron. The manufacture of the pure metal on a com- 
mercial scale does not appear to have been successful so far, and it is 
probable that the large demand for the alloys has prevented proper 
attention being given to this branch of the subject. 

The mode of electrically producing aluminium alloys invented by 
the Cowles Brothers, of Cleveland, Ohio, is as follows : They construct 
a rectangular box of fire-resisting material, lined with a mixture of fine 
charcoal and lime. It has a removable cover, which is perforated with 
openings to allow the escape of gases evolved. In the sides of this 
furnace the electrodes — two plates of gas carbon — are let in, by means 
of which the current of a powerful dynamo-electric machine is intro- 
duced. The charge consists of a mixture of the coarsely crushed ore 
and coke fragments. The essential feature of the process consists, 
therefore, in employing in the furnace a substance like carbon, whose 
great resistance to the passage of the current causes the production of a 
prodigiously high temperature, and which, at the same time, is capable 
of exercising a powerful reducing action on the ore. With such an 
arrangement of apparatus and the use of a powerful electric current, 
the inventors have succeeded in reducing aluminium from corun- 
dum, and have greatly cheapened the cost of aluminium bronzes and 
brasses. 

The Eferault process for the production of aluminium, though elec- 

(354) 



ALLOYS. 355 

trical, differs from that of Messrs. Cowles Brothers in being, in the 
main, electrolytic. Works have been erected at Lauffen-Neuhausen, 
Switzerland, by the Swiss Metallurgical Company, for carrying out the 
process on a commercial scale. An electrical plant, capable of produc- 
ing daily about 6 cwt. of aluminium, or its equivalent in a 10 per 
cent, aluminium bronze, is in use. In carrying out the process the 
electric current is employed to fuse the metal with which the aluminium 
is to be alloyed, and to separate the aluminium by electrolysis of 
alumina in a molten state. The current is produced by two dynamos, 
each of 6,000 amperes and 20 volts, their magnetic field being excited 
by a separate dynamo, the combination being driven by a Jonval 
turbine of 300 horse-power. The metal, copper for the production of 
aluminium bronze, is introduced in a divided state into a crucible 
formed of conducting carbon, suitably strengthened by external casing 
of metal ; this crucible forming the negative pole of the electrolyzing 
bath, the positive pole being composed of a bundle of carbon plates. 
After the copper is fused, alumina is introduced into the crucible, where 
it is fused and electrolyzed, the oxygen passing off at the positive pole 
and the aluminium at the negative, and there uniting with the fused 
copper. The process is thus continuous, the fused alloy being drawn 
off by means of a plugged hole at the bottom of the crucible, and fresh 
copper and alumina being introduced by suitable openings in the cover 
as required. The current passing through the crucible is from 12,000 
to 13,000 amperes, with a difference of potential between the electrodes 
of about 12 to 15 volts. 

F. Lauterborn has patented in Germany the following process of 
preparing aluminium from aluminium sulphate by means of antimony 
and coal at a high temperature : The crude aluminium sulphate is 
freed from water by heating in crucibles or upon a hearth, and the 
resulting porous mass pulverized ; 100 parts of aluminium sulphate, 50 
of coal, and 72 of antimony are mixed, and, after adding fluor spar, 
sodium carbonate or sodium sulphide for the formation of slag, the 
mixture is heated in a crucible or furnace until it melts, and is for some 
time kept in flux by a blowing engine. The specifically very heavy 
sulphide of antimony formed settles on the bottom of the crucible, but 
is converted into slag by the addition of sodium. The antimony is 
regained as regulus from the sulphide of antimony by means of iron in 
the known manner. 

The greatest value of aluminium, perhaps, is in the wonderful alloys 
it is capable of producing. These are very numerous and always satis- 
factory alloyed with wrought-iron and steel, giving certain properties 
that enable, those metals to be cast successfully and without blow-holes ; 
with copper, the beautiful gold bronze ; with silver, the tiers agent of 
the French ; and with zinc, nickel, tin, and manganese it forms valu- 
able and characteristic alloys, giving to them qualities of great tensile 
strength, immunity from oxidation, and other advantages. 

Aluminium-Bronze. — The alloys of aluminium with copper show 
very different properties according to the quantity of aluminium they 
contain. Alloys containing but little copper cannot be used for indus- 
trial purposes. With 60 to 70 per cent, of aluminium they are brittle, 
glass-hard, and beautifully crystalline. With 50 per cent, the alloy is 
quite soft, but under 30 per cent, of aluminium the hardness returns. 

The usual alloys are those of 1, 2, 5, and 10 per cent. The 5 per cent, 
bronze is golden in color, polishes well, casts beautifully, is very 



356 ALLOYS. 

malleable cold or hot, and has great strength, especially after hammer- 
ing. The 7.5 per cent, bronze is to be recommended as superior to the 
5 per cent, bronze. It has a peculiar greenish-gold color, which makes 
it very suitable for decoration. All these good qualities are possessed 
by the 10 per cent, bronze. It is bright golden, keeps its polish in the 
air, may be easily engraved, shows an elasticity much greater than 
steel, and can be soldered with hard solder. When it is made by a 
simple mixing of ingredients it is brittle, and does not acquire its best 
qualities until after having been recast several times. After three or 
four meltings it reaches a maximum, at which point it may be melted 
several times without sensible change. It gives good castings of all 
sizes, and runs in sand moulds very uniformly. Thin castings come 
out very sharp, but if a casting is thin and suddenly thickens, small 
ofF-shoots must be made at the thick place, into which the metal can 
run and then soak back into the casting as it cools and shrinks, thus 
avoiding cavities by shrinkage at the thick part. Its specific gravity 
is 7.68, about that of soft iron. Its strength when hammered is equal 
to the best steel. It may be forged at about the same heat as cast-steel, 
and then hammered until it is almost cold without breaking or ripping. 
Tempering makes it soft and malleable. It does not foul a file and 
may be drawn into wire. Any part of a machine which is usually 
made of steel can be replaced by this bronze. 

The melting-point of aluminium-bronze varies slightly with the con- 
tent of aluminium, the higher grades melting at a somewhat lower 
temperature than the lower. The 10 per cent, bronze melts at about 
1700° F., a little higher than ordinary bronze or brass. 

Aluminium-bronze shrinks about twice as much as brass, and hence 
due allowance has to be made for this in the mould and pattern. As 
the metal solidifies rapidly, it is necessary to pour it quickly and to 
make the gates amply large, so that there will be no " freezing' 1 in the 
"gates" before the casting is properly fed. To obviate the shrinkage 
as much as possible, the metal is allowed to enter the mould at a tem- 
perature not higher than will admit of it running freely. When there 
is a heavy mass of metal in the shape of an envelope surrounding a 
core, the contraction upon solidification will cause the metal to split 
unless the core is made to yield equally with the contraction. Baked 
sand moulds are preferable to green sand, except for small castings. 

One of the chief difficulties met with in the casting of aluminium - 
bronze is to avoid oxidation in transferring the metal from the crucible 
or ladle to the mould. If any of the film of oxide which floats on the 
surface should get into the casting during the pouring, it will appear 
there like so much dirt, and is apt to cause trouble. The ordinary 
"skim-gate" will prevent this in the case of small castings, but with 
large masses the metal is first poured into a receiver, which is connected 
with and is part of the " pouring-gate," but is prevented from entering 
the mould by means of a plug which closes up the mouth of the " gate." 
To illustrate this more clearly, imagine the pouring-gate shaped like a 
funnel, into which the metal is first poured. It is prevented from run- 
ning into the mould by the plug already mentioned. As soon as the 
dirt has risen to the top the plug is withdrawn, and consequently 
nothing but the clear metal at the bottom enters the mould. For 
casting over 50 lbs., the metal is poured from a large ladle through a 
hole in the bottom. Ample facilities should be made for the escape of 
gases. 

Both aluminium and copper volatilize only at extremely high tern- 



ALLOYS. 



357 



peratures, and consequently aluminium-bronze can be remelted with- 
out any appreciable change in the strength or quality of the metal 
whatever. 

Aluminium-bronze forges similarly to the best Swedish iron, but at 
a much lower temperature. It works best at a cherry-red ; if this is 
much exceeded, the metal becomes hot-short, and is easily crushed. 
The temperature for rolling is a bright-red heat; and it is a curious 
fact that, if the metal were forged at the temperature it is rolled, it 
would be crushed to pieces. If the temperature in the ordinary muffle 
in which it is heated be allowed to rise too high, the bronze will 
frequently fall apart by its own weight. When in the rolls it acts very 
much like yellow Muntz metal. As it loses its heat much more rapidly 
than copper or iron, it has to be annealed frequently between rollings. 

Aluminium-Brass. — The addition of a few per cent, of aluminium 
to common brass greatly increases its tenacity and resistance to corro- 
sion. Alloys containing copper, zinc, and aluminium between the 
following limits, 

Copper 67 to 71 per cent. 

Zinc 27£"30 " " 

Aluminium U" 3 " " 

and combined in different proportions, give tenacities from a little 
above 30,000 to over 65,000 lbs. per square inch. Alloys with much 
less copper and more zinc — 55.8 to 57 per cent, copper and 42 to 43 per 
cent, zinc — approach nearer 70,000 lbs., and a specimen composed of 
copper 67.4 per cent., zinc 26.8, and aluminium 5.8, broke at over 
95,000 lbs. tenacity per square inch. 

Test of Aluminium-Bronze and Aluminium-Brass. — At Water- 
town Arsenal, Mass., a test ordered by the government was recently 
made, to determine what is the strongest metal to use for the screw- 
propellers of war-ships. The result was as follows : 

Government Gun Bronze. 



Copper 88, tin 10, zinc 2 per cent, 
Copper 88, tin 10, zinc 2 per cent 
Copper 88, tin 10, zinc 2 per cent 
Copper 88, tin 10, zinc 2 per cent, 
Copper 88, tin 10, zinc 2 per cent, 
Copper 88, tin 10, zinc 2 per cent, 



9,000 
10,000 
13,000 
11,000 
13,000 
10,000 



a o 

03 , — i 

oh 



1.5 

2. 

3. 

5. 

1.5 

3.5 



•5.2 
fl § £ 

V s- °3 
T3 to 



18,000 
18,000 
20,000 
22,500 
23,000 
19,000 



358 



ALLOYS. 

Aluminium Bronze and Brass 





1 

a, .2 

o « 
Pw 


a 

.2 

. bJO 

a § 

a) — i 

u 
<v 
Ph 


Pounds ten- 
sile strength 
per square in. 


Bronze composition — ■ 

Copper and 8 per cent. Al & Si 

Copper and 10 per cent. Al & Si 


19,000 
33,000 
18,000 
19,000 
17,000 
24,000 
28,000 
33,000 

55,000 
65,000 


23.7 
3.2 

26. 
9.3 

11.9 

13.3 
4.5 
3.6 

1.6 
2.5 


58,500 
68,000 
61,000 


Copper and 8£ per cent. Al & Si 


Copper and 7i per cent. Al & Si 


52,000 

' 46,000 

66,500 


Copper and 7 per cent. Al & Si 


Copper and 8f per cent. Al & Si 


Copper and 9 per cent. Al & Si 

Copper and 10i per cent. Al & Si 

Brass Composition — 

Copper and 3£ al, 33J per cent. Zn 

Copper and 3 J al, 33i per cent. Zn 


66,000 
72,500 

70,000 
82,500 



AH bars were 22 inches in length by 1£ inches in diameter, and 10 
inches or 15 inches between elongation marks. It was conceded by 
all metal experts present that no bars of this size, even of steel castings, 
had ever shown anything like the combined strength, toughness, and 
high elasticity exhibited by those of aluminium-bronze and brass. 

Aluminium-Bronze and Nickel Alloys. — A number of remark- 
able and useful alloys are made by mixing aluminium-bronzes with 
nickel in various proportions. These compositions are said to be very- 
ductile, and to have a tenacity of from 75,000 to over 100,000 lbs. per 
square inch, with about 30 per cent, elongation. An alloy of a similar 
nature made by the " Webster Crown Metal Company," England, gives 
results ranging from 82,000 to over 100,000. 

According to J. Webster, for preparing the bronze two alloys are 
used, which are designated as aluminium alloy (A) and nickel alloy 
(B.) A consists of 15 parts of aluminium and 85 of tin, and B of 17 
parts of nickel, 17 of copper and 66 of tin. The metals are melted 
together in the usual manner with the use of a flux under a cover of 
common salt and chloride of potash. The two alloys are then melted 
together with copper. It has been found that the bronze is the harder 
and better, the more it contains of the two alloys and vice versa. The 
following is given as the best proportion : Copper 88 parts and 8 parts 
of each of A and B. When the copper is melted the alloys are added 
and then melted, being stirred with a wooden or clay rod (an iron rod 
must not be used under any condition) until the mass is homogeneous, 
which is recognized by a test-ingot. A second quality of aluminium- 
bronze which is cheaper than the preceding is composed of 92 parts 
of copper and 4 parts each of the alloys A and B. 

Alloy of Aluminium and Gold. — This alloy, which is also known. 



ALLOYS. 359 

as Nurnberg gold, is frequently used in the manufacture of cheap gold- 
ware, it being well adapted for the purpose as its color exactly re- 
sembles that of pure gold and remains unchanged in the air. The 
composition of most articles of Niirnberg gold is according to the fol- 
lowing composition : Copper 90 parts, gold 2.5, aluminium 7.5. 

Alloys of Aluminium and Silver. — Aluminium and silver form 
beautiful white alloys considerably harder than pure aluminium and 
taking a very high* polish. These alloys have the advantage over 
copper alloys of being unchangeable on exposure to the air and retain- 
ing their white color. It has, therefore, been proposed to alloy coins 
with aluminium instead of copper, which would render them much 
more durable, but the results of experiments on a large scale were not 
satisfactory. 

The alloys of aluminium and silver show very varying physical prop- 
erties according to the content of aluminium. An alloy consisting of 
aluminium 100 parts and silver 5 differs but little from pure aluminium, 
but is considerably harder and takes a beautiful polish. An alloy of 
aluminium 169 parts and silver 5 possesses considerable elasticity, and 
is recommended for fine watch springs and dessert knives. An alloy of 
equal parts of aluminium and silver shows a hardness equal to that of 
bronze. 

Tiers Argent {One-third Silver). — This alloy is chiefly prepared in 
Paris factories for the manufacture of various utensils, and as indicated 
by its name consists of silver 33.33 parts and aluminium 66.66. The 
advantage of this alloy over silver consists in the lower price and greater 
hardness ; it is also stamped and engraved with greater ease than the 
alloys of copper and silver. It is especially suitable for nautical 
instruments, as it combines lightness with great resistance to the 
weather. 

Alloy of Aluminium and Tin. — An alloy, the use of which it is 

claimed overcomes the difficulties of working and welding aluminium, 
is formed by melting together 100 parts of aluminium with 10 of tin. 
The alloy is whiter than aluminium and but little heavier, its specific 
gravity being 2.85. By most substances it is less attacked than pure 
aluminium, and it canbe welded and soldered like brass without any 
special preparation. 

Alloys of Aluminium and Iron.— Ostberg, a Swedish inventor, 
has devised an ingenious process of making castings (clean and sharp) 
of wrought iron, or, as they are called, mitis castings, by taking advan- 
tage of the observation which he made that the addition of an extremely 
small quantity of aluminium to wrought iron, kept at a white heatin 
a crucible, forms a combination which has a much lower fusing point 
than wrought iron. 

In making mitis castings a very small quantity, about n&o to 1 per 
cent, of aluminium in the form of a 7 to 8 per cent, aluminium alloy 
of cast iron is added to the charge (about 60 lbs.) of wrought iron in 
the crucible the moment this has been melted. The fusing point is at once 
lowered some 500° F., and the charge, now an alloy of aluminium and 
iron, becomes extremely fluid and can be cast in the_finest_ moulds, 
while the great difference between its temperature and its fusing point 
£ives all the time necessary for manipulating it without danger of its 



360 ALLOYS. 

solidifying. The extreme fluidity of the charge allows the ready 
escape of the gases, which otherwise would make a porous casting, 
and the result is a remarkably fine, solid and tough casting of wrought 
iron. 

These mitis castings are said to be from 30 to 50 per cent, stronger 
than the iron from which they are made, but though aluminium 
undoubtedly greatly increases the strength of most of the metals with 
which it alloys, it is not credited with the increase in strength in this 
case, for it is said that after hammering the mitis metal loses its 
increase in strength and returns to the fibrous appearance and to the 
strength of the original iron. 

Brazing Aluminium-bronze. — Aluminium-bronze will braze as 
well as any other metal, using one-quarter brass solder (zinc 50 per 
cent., copper 50 per cent.) and three-quarters borax. 

Soldering 1 Aluminium-bronze. — To solder aluminium-bronze 
with ordinary soft (pewter) solder : Cleanse well the parts to be joined 
free from dirt and grease. Then place the parts to be soldered in a 
strong solution of sulphate of copper, and place in the bath a rod of 
soft iron touching the parts to be joined. After a while a copper-like 
surface will be seen on the metal, ftemove from bath, rinse quite clean 
and brighten the surfaces. These surfaces can then be tinned by using 
a fluid consisting of zinc dissolved in hydrochloric acid in the ordinary 
way with common soft solder. 

Aluminium-bronze for jewelry may be soldered by using the follow- 
ing composition : 

Hard Solder for 10 per cent. Aluminium-bronze. Gold, 88.88 per 
cent. ; silver, 4.68 ; copper, 6.44. 

Middling Hard Solder for 10 per cent. Aluminium-bronze. Gold, 
54.40 per cent. ; silver, 27.60 ; copper, 18. 

Soft Solder for Aluminium-bronze. Brass (copper, 70 per cent. ; 
tin, 30), 14.30 per cent. ; gold, 14.30; silver, 57.10; copper, 14.30. 

Phosphor-bronze. — Phosphorus is the most effective addition for 
obtaining hard bronzes free from oxides. The content of phosphorus 
is imparted to the bronze by an addition of cupric phosphide or 
phosphide of tin, both these phosphor-metals being sometimes used at 
the same time. 

Cupric phosphide is prepared by heating a mixture of 4 parts of 
super-phosphate of lime, 2 parts of granulated copper and 1 part of 
finely pulverized coal in a crucible at not too high a temperature. The 
melted cupric phosphide which contains 14 per cent, of phosphorus 
separates on the bottom of the crucible. 

According to another method cupric phosphide is prepared by adding 
phosphorus to copper-sulphide solution and boiling, adding sulphur as 
the sulphide is precipitated. The precipitate is carefully dried, 
melted and cast into ingots. When of good quality and in proper 
condition it is quite black. 

Phosphide of tin is prepared as follows : Place a bar of zinc in an 
aqueous solution of chloride of tin, collect the sponge-like tin separated 
and bring it moist into a crucible, upon the bottom of which sticks of 
phosphorus have been placed. Press the tin tightly into the crucible 
and expose it to a gentle heat. Continue the heating until flames of 
burning phosphorus are no longer observed on the crucible. After the 



ALLOYS. 361 

operation is finished a coarsely-crystalline mass of a tin-white color 
consisting of pure phosphide of tin is found upon the bottom of the 
crucible. 

Phosphor-bronze is prepared by melting the alloy to be converted 
into it in the usual manner, and adding small pieces of cupric 
phosphide and phosphide of tin 

The properties of correctly prepared phosphor-bronze are as follows : 
Its melting point is nearly the same as that of ordinary bronze. In 
cooling it shows, however, the phenomenon of passing directly from 
the liquid into the solid state without first becoming thickly fluid. In 
a melted state it retains a perfectly bright surface, while that of 
ordinary bronze is always covered with a thin film of oxide. 

If phosphor-bronze be subjected to continued melting no loss of tin 
takes place, but the content of phosphorus decreases slightly. 

The chief properties of phosphor-bronze are its extraordinary 
tenacity and strength ; in a cold state it can be stretched, rolled and 
hammered. Its strength is double that of the best ordinary bronze. 
It is especially used for articles which are to show great strength and 
power of resisting external influences ; for instance, the action of sea 
water. 

Bronze with a content of tin of about 4 per cent, is especially suit- 
able for the manufacture of sheet-metal ; with up to 5 percent, of tin it 
can be used in a forged state for gun-barrels and ordnance. 

Bronzes with a content of tin between 7 and 10 per cent, have the 
greatest hardness and are especially adapted for axle-bearings, cylinders 
for steam fire-engines, cogwheels and generally for parts of machines 
requiring great strength and hardness. Phosphor-bronze acquires by 
exposure to the air for a short time a beautiful, tightly adhering patina 
and can therefore be suitably used for works of art. According to the 
purpose for which the bronze is to be used, the addition of phosphorus 
varies, but the following five sorts are considered to answer all require- 
ments : 

0. Ordinary phosphor-bronze of 2 per cent, of phosphorus. 

1. Good phosphor-bronze of 2% per cent, of phosphorus. 

These two numbers are in all cases superior to ordinary bronze and 
steel. 

2. Superior phosphor-bronze of 3 per cent, of phosphorus. 

3. Extra phosphor-bronze of 3i per cent, of phosphorus. 

4. Maximum phosphor-bronze of 4 per cent, of phosphorus. 

These three, according to Delalot, are superior to any other bronzes. 

Above No. 4 phosphor-bronze is useless, below No. it is inferior to 
common bronze and steel. Nos. 3 and 4 are comparatively un- 
oxidizable. 

Manganese Alloys. — A favorable effect is produced by an addition 
of manganese to bronze, brass, copper, etc. All varieties of com- 
mercial copper as well as bronzes contain more or less oxide which 
injures the properties of these alloys, especially decreasing their 
tenacity and malleability. The removal of such admixtures of oxide 
is effected by substances which have a greater affinity for oxygen than 
copper, for instance, by an addition of phosphorus in the preparation 
of phosphor-bronze. Metallic manganese acts, however, far more 
energetically as it does not volatize like phosphorus at the fusing 
temperature. For this purpose an alloy of copper and manganese, the 
so-called eupro-manganese consisting of copper 70.5 parts, manganese 
25 



362 ALLOYS. 

25 and coal 0.5 is recommended. Of this composition an addition of 
2§ per cent, suffices for most cases. The process is very simple. 
After melting the bronze masses the metal-bath is covered with pulver- 
ized wood charcoal, and the pieces of cupro-manganese previously- 
weighed and reduced to small pieces are allowed slowly to slide into the 
crucible. Fusion takes place instantaneously, but the crucible is for a 
few moments to be replaced upon the fire in order to somewhat increase 
the temperature reduced by the addition of the cold pieces of metal. 
In pouring out proceed in the ordinary manner. To enclose the oxide 
of manganese formed by this process, add to the charcoal with which 
the metal-bath is covered about one-half its quantity of pure carbonate 
of soda or potash. The following alloys are prepared according to this 
method : 

1. Tin, 16 parts; zinc, 3i; lead, 3i ; cupro-manganese, 1. 

2. Tin, 16; zinc, 3; lead, 3; cupro-manganese, 2. 

3. Red Brass. Copper, 85; tin, 14; cupro-manganese, 1 ; or copper, 
81 ; tin, 17 ; cmpro-manganese, 2. 

4. White Metal. Tin, 42; lead, 40; antimony, 20; cupro-man- 
ganese, 2. 

Ferru-manganese composed of manganese 75 parts and iron 75 can be 
used for the preparation of sterro-metal ; copper, 54 parts ; zinc, 40 ; 
ferro-manganese, 6. 

A composition of cupro-manganese consisting of copper 70 per cent, 
and manganese 30 per cent, is used as an addition to many alloys, 
especially for tombac, brass and bronze. By this addition greater 
density, solidity and extensibility are imparted to the alloys. A cop- 
per-tin alloy with 6 per cent, manganese possesses the hardness of steel. 
For bearings the alloy consists of copper, 80 parts; tin, 6; zinc, 5; 
cupro-manganese, 9. For rolls an alloy composed of tin, 64 parts ; 
copper, 8 ; antimony, 16 ; lead, 10 ; and cupro-manganese, 2, is recom- 
mended. For malleable brass, copper, 56i parts ; zinc, 42 ; and cupro- 
manganese, li. 

Manganese alloys are capable of taking a good polish, and have a 
white to rose-color color. Cupro-manganese is used in refining copper 
for the reduction of cuprous oxide, the manganese alloy playing in this 
case a role corresponding to that of ferro-manganese in the preparation 
of steel. Manganese silver consists of copper 80 per cent., manganese 
15, and zinc 5. It is white, takes a good polish and is readily worked. 

Manganese Steel. — To the steel melting quietly 80 per cent, ferro- 
manganese is added in such quantity as desired. The steel is then 
poured out. To obtain steel with 9 per cent, manganese 0.11 to 0.12 
per cent, of the 80 per cent, ferro-manganese, together with 5.5 to 6 per 
cent, of carbon have to be added. This steel-mixture liquefies with 
ease. The pieces prepared from it are very resistant to shocks. It is 
difficult to work with drill or chisel, but can be conveniently ham- 
mered and stretched. 

Hadfield's Manganese Steel. — The electrical resistance of the non- 
magnetic manganese steel is 8 times greater than that of ordinary steel 
and iron and 30 times greater than that of copper. Material with 5 or 6 
per cent, of manganese is very hard, with 10 per cent, soft, with 22 per 
cent. hard. For wrought material the best content is 14 per cent., with 
not over 1 per cent, of carbon. In France manganese steel is used for 
horseshoes, whole regiments of cavalry being provided with them. 

Malleable Bronze.— A patent has been taken out both in England 



ALLOYS. 



363 



and France by Messrs. A. Sentex, C. Marshall and A. Saunier, estab- 
lishing a process for producing malleable and ductile bronze bars or 
plates which are free from cracks and blow holes, are " inoxidizable," 
and which may be " rolled and drawn with the greatest ease." More- 
over, have the appearance and " sonorousness of gold." 3.3 lbs. of tin 
are purified by melting under nitre. 22 lbs. of copper are melted and 
1.76 ozs. of equal parts of nitrate and cyanide of potassium are added 
for the double purpose of reducing the oxides and " fattening" the 
metal. Then 0.88 oz. of bitartrate of potassium with the same quantity 
of cyanide is added, and, after poling, the tin is introduced; 0.88 oz. 
each of sal ammoniac and cyanide are thrown on; 15.43 grains of 
" phosphuret of copper " introduced to " impart mildness," and 0.7 oz. 
of "Marseilles soap" added, which still further fattens the metal. 
Finally, 15.43 grains of sodium are added at the moment of casting. 
The metal, if cast in sand, may contain zinc, and the proportion of tin 
be reduced, the quantity of phosphorus and sodium may be increased. 

Composition of Some Alloys. 
1. Lazare Weillers. 



Silicon Telephone Wire A. 

Copper 99.94 per cent. 

Tin 0.03 

Silicon 0.02 " 

Iron trace. 

Zinc 

99.99 " 



Silicon Telegraph Wire A. 

Copper 97.12 per cent. 

Tin 1.14 

Silicon 0.05 " 

Iron trace. 

Zinc 1.62 " 

99.93 " 



2. Silicon Brass from Isabellen- 
Hiltte near Dillenburg. 

Copper 71.30 per cent. 

Zinc 26.65 " 

Lead 0.74 " 

Tin 0.57 " 

Iron 0.38 " 

Silicon 0.14 " 



.78 



3. Mira Metal from Klein, Schanz- 
lin and Becker of Frankenthal. 

Copper 74.755 per cent. 

Zinc 0.615 " 



Lead 

Tin 

Iron 

Nickel and cobalt. 
Antimony 



16.350 
0.910 
0.340 
0.240 
6.785 



99.995 



4. Delta 3Ietal of the "Deutschen Delta-Metall Gesellschaft. 





Cast. 
Per cent. 


Wrought. 

Per cent. 


Rolled. 
Per cent. 


Hot, 
Punched. 
Per cent. 


Copper 


55.94 
0.72 
0.87 
0.81 
41.61 
trace. 
0.013 


55.80 
1.82 
1.28 
0.96 
40.07 
trace. 
0.011 


55.82 
0.76 
0.86 
1.38 

41.41 
0.06 

trace. 


54.22 




1.10 




0.99 




1.09 


Zinc 


42.25 


Ni c k e i' 


0.16 




0.02 








99.963 


99.941 


100.29 


99.83 



364 ALLOYS. 

Locomotive Brass Castings.— brasses for Side Rods. Copper 6 
lbs., tin 1 Jb. ; to 100 lbs. of this mixture add \ Jb. each of zinc and lead. 

Brasses for Driving Boxes. The same as for side rod brasses. 

Some master mechanics prefer harder brasses, and call for 5 lbs. of 
copper and 1 lb. of tin, £ lb. of zinc and i lb. of lead. 

Bells. Copper 4 lbs., tin 1 lb. ; to every 100 lbs. of this mixture add 
zinc i lb. and lead £ lb. 

Castings Subjected to Steam Pressure. Copper 20 lbs., tin li lbs., 
lead and zinc of each 1 lb. 

Pumps and Pump Chambers. Copper 8 lbs., tin 1 lb.; to every 100 
lbs. of this mixture add 1+ lbs. each of lead and zinc. 

Piston Packing Rings. Copper 16 lbs., tin 2i lbs.; to every 100 lbs. 
of this mixture add 1 lb. each of zinc and lead. 

Approved Compositioiis for Bearings of Rapidly Running Machines. 
I. Tin 17 parts, antimony 77, copper 6. II. Copper 86 parts, zinc 14. 
III. Copper 82, zinc 18. IV. Copper 84, zinc 16. V. Copper 100, zinc 
10, tin 3. VI. Tin 17.47, zinc 76.14, copper 5.69. 

Bearing 3Ietals for Locomotives. I. copper 86 parts, tin 14. II. 
Dutch. Copper 85.25 parts, tin 127.5, zinc 2. III. Approved Belgian. 
Copper 80 parts, tin 16, lead 2, antimony 2. IV. French Northern 
Railroad. Copper 82 parts, tin 10, zinc 8. V. Copper 87.5 parts, tin 
7.88, zinc 5.07. VI. Copper 79.5 parts, tin 7.5, zinc 5, lead 8. 





Bearings for 


Railroad Cars. 




Copper. 


Tin. 


Zinc. 


Lead. 


Parts. 


Parts. 


Parts. 


Parts. 


78.7 


7.8 


6.4 


7.4 


88 


10 


2 


— 


84 


16 


— 


— 


82 


18 


. — 


— 


75 


20 


— 


— 


87.7 


9.7 


2.6 


— 


90 


10 


— 


— 


78 


20 


2 


— 



New Alloys. — I. A new alloy, which is said to practically resist the 
attack of most acid and alkaline solutions, is composed of copper 15 
parts, tin 2.34, lead 1.82, antimony 1. This alloy is, therefore, a 
bronze with the addition of lead and antimony. It is claimed that 
it can be very advantageously used in the laboratory to replace 
vessels or fittings of ebonite, vulcanite or porcelain. 

II. The following alloy is highly recommended. It is similar to 
German silver, contains no nickel, but manganese instead. It consists 
of copper 72+ per cent., manganese 16+, zinc 81, iron 2£. It is malle- 
able, does not change when immersed in water for 40 days, takes the 
silver-plating well, but is a little yellowish. 

III. A new and curious alloy is produced by placing in a clean 
crucible an ounce of copper and an ounce of antimony and fusing 
them by a strong heat. The compound will, be hard and of a beautiful 
violet hue. This alloy has not yet been applied to any useful purpose, 
but its excellent qualities, independent of its color, entitle it to consid- 
eration. 

An Alloy Resembling* Gold is obtained by melting together copper 
16 parts, zinc 1, and platinum 7. The copper and platinum are first cov- 
ered with borax, then with pulverized charcoal, and after fusing, the 



ALLOYS. 



365 



zinc is added. The alloy thus produced is easily worked, can be 
drawn out to the finest wire, and never turns blue. 

Non-Magnetic Alloys. — I. A new alloy has recently been brought 
out iu Geneva, Switzerland, to be used as a substitute for steel in the 
manufacture of different parts of watch mechanism, such as hair springs 
and balance wheels, which are apt to cause a good deal of annoyance 
through becoming magnetized. It is made from 30 to 40 parts of gold, 
from 30 to 40 parts of palladium, 0.1 to 5 parts of rhodium, 10 to 20 
parts of copper, 0.1 to 5 parts of manganese, and the same proportion of 
silver and of platinum. The copper and manganese are first mixed, 
after which the other metals are added, or all the metals may be put 
into the crucible at the same time, the manganese being used for the 
bottom layer. 

II. Tin, 0.03 part; copper, 58.1; lead, 0.09; zinc, 18.9; iron, 1.28 ; 
nickel, 20.62; manganese, 0.98. 

Alloys of Copper with Silver and Gold. — The color of the gold 
alloys depends on the greater or less content of gold and silver. Alloys 
rich in silver are more whitish, and those rich in copper more reddish. 
Cadmium gives the alloy a green color, while gray gold is obtained by 
the addition of steel, as shown in the following table: 



COLOK. 


Gold. 


Silver. 


Copper. 


Cad- 
mium. 


Steel. 


Yellow 


583 
583 
583 
666 
666 
750 
750 
750 
746 
750 
800 
725 
857 
250 to 750 
666 
600 


250 
125 

42 
194 

67 
146 
104 
166 
114 
125 


167 
292 
375 
139 
268 
104 
146 






Dark yellow 










Yellow 






Eed 




Yellow 




Eed 






84 

43 

125 




a 


97 




a 




Gray 




200 


a 


275 
86 








<( 






57 


Blue 






250 




333 
200 








Pale red 


200 







An Alloy which Expands on Cooling- may be prepared from 
lead, 9 parts ; antimony, 2 ; bismuth, 2. It is well adapted for filling out 
small holes and bad places in cast-iron. 

Acid -Resisting" Bronze. — This bronze is patented in Austria, and 
is claimed to possess an extraordinary power of resisting acids and alka- 
lies, and therefore can be advantageously substituted for hard rubber, 
porcelain, and other substances. It is composed of copper, 15 parts; 
tin, 2.34; lead, 1.82; and antimony, 1. The metals are fused together 
in the usual manner, and the alloy is worked like ordinary bronze. 



366 



ALLOYS. 



Alloys of Lead, Antimony, and Tin. — These alloys are readily 
fusible, and very useful for cheap cast articles which may be silvered : 





Tin. 


Anti- 
mony. 


Copper 


Zinc. 


Lead. 


Va- 
rious. 


Britannia, English 


81.90 

90.62 

90.1 

85.4 

81.2 

89.3 

91.4 

88.5 

72 

84 

20 

48 

"Ti" 

8 
79 
66 


16.25 

7.81 

6.3 

9.66 

5.70 

7.6 


1.84 

1.46 

3.1 

0.81 

1.60 

1.8 

0.7 

3.5 

4 

2 

10 
3 
3.5 

11.4 
2 
3 
4 

"2" 
........ 

"'IT 


0.5 
3.06 


"iT.5" 
1.8 

7.6 




it <( 

u it 












0.3 

0.9 




Queen's metal 


7.1 
24 

9 
64 








«< (i 


5 

6 
48 
93.4 
84.3 

1 

2 

9 






a it 


1 

3.1 

2.9 




Biddery metal 

(1 J u 










14 

15 
20 
25 
18 
25 


2 nick'l 


" ' « 




lnick'l 




"75"' 
70 
55 
6 
55 
69.2 
40 
28.6 
34.6 
42.8 








n n 


10 
20 




a << 


"So"" 




«< i< 




" " English 


22.1 
9.1 
60 
71.4 
60.0 
57.2 


22.7 
19.5 

""5 A 




a (( a 




Fahlun brilliants 























German Silver Alloy. — The alloy is composed of German silver, 
with an addition of 1 to 10 per cent, of tin, 1 to 5 per cent, of manganese, 
and 1 to 5 per cent, of 15 per cent, phosphor-tin or phosphor-copper. It 
is claimed to be especially suitable for castiug articles with thin walls. 

Sideraphtite. — An alloy, to which this name is applied, consists of 
iron, 65 parts; nickel, 23; tungsten, 4; aluminium, 5; and copper, 5. 
It is claimed to completely resist the action of sulphuretted hydrogen 
and vegetable acids, and to be quite indifferent towards mineral acids. 

Bismuth-bronze consists of copper, 52 parts; nickel, 30; zinc, 12; 
lead, 5; and bismuth, 1. This alloy resists oxidation, and seems to be 
especially suitable for the manufacture of lamp-reflectors, metallic 
mirrors, etc. 

Alloy for Moulds for Iron Founding". — The following alloy is dis- 
tinguished by great hardness and strength, and by being but slightly 
subject to oxidation : 100 parts of 10 per cent, aluminium-bronze, 2 
parts of zinc, 0.5 part of manganese, 1.5 part of lead, 2 parts of tin, and 



ALLOYS. 



367 



0.25 part of phosphorus. Melt until the alloy has reached a melting 
point of 1482° F., and then pour into ingots. A very pure and homo- 
geneous metal is obtained by recrystallizing the alloy once more. 
With a specific gravity of 8.3, the hardness of the alloy is 3.4; its 
strength of extension 171.66 lbs. per 0.155 square inch, and its melting 
point 1482° F. 

Alloys of Copper with Nickel. — Pure copper-nickel alloys are 
used for the fabrication of small money, the Belgian, German, United 
States, and Brazilian coins consisting of nickel 25 parts and copper 75. 

Another kind of nickel alloys consists of copper, zinc, and nickel, 
and are known as German silver or argentan : 



German silver : 

English, best quality 

" refractory 

" ordinary... 

German, best quality 

" second " ... 

" third " ... 

Chinese white copper... 

Paris argentan 

" oreide 

Euolz metal 

(< it 

a k 

a a 

a a 

Packfong A 

B 

C 



ft 

ft 
O 

O 


o 

a 


8 


3.5 


8 


3.5 


8 


6.5 


52 


26 


59 


30 


63 


31 


79.40 




69.8 


O.D 


79.7 




37 to 42 
30 to 40 
45 to 55 








41.8 


16.3 


42 


16 


44.6 


10.8 


40 


25 


43 


40 


45 


21 


40.4 


25.4 



4 
6 
3 

22 
11 

6 

16.02 
19.8 
13.05 
20.0 
45 to 55 
25 to 35 

8.6 

8 

4.6 
31 
16 
33 
31.6 



4.58 



0.28 



4.7 



0.09 



2.6 



33 

40 
20 
33 

34 
40 



Tombac (Red Brass). — To obtain great hardness together with the 
utmost ductility in tombac or red brass without the addition of com- 
mercial pbosphor-bronze, green bottle-glass may be advantageously 
used. For this purpose reduce the glass to a powder in a mortar, and 
use £ lb. of the powder for 25 lbs. of metal. Care must be had to 
place the entire quantify of glass upon the bottom of the crucible so 
that the metal lies on top. The metal obtained is very hard and can 
scarcely be worked. This alloy is especially suitable for an addition 
to every other alloy. If the alloy is to be used by itself for castings 
1 per cent, of manganic oxide has to be mixed with the metal. 

Fusible Alloy. — An alloy which melts at a lower temperature than 



368 



ALLOYS. 



the magic spoon is obtained by melting together 48 parts bismuth, 31 
of cadmium, 10 of lead, and 20 of zinc. This alloy melts at 135° F. 

Alloys of Cadmium and Bismuth. — These alloys have the pecu- 
liarity of their melting points being far below those of the constituent 
metals. Some of them melt even in hot water. They can, therefore, 
be employed for casting in moulds not capable of standing great heat, 
for instance, paper, wood, plaster of Paris, etc. The most important of 
these alloys are found in the following table : 





Melting point. 
Degrees F. 


h3 




5 ° 
^2 


OS 

°1 


id 




158 
169.8 
167.0 
203.0 
150.0 
143.6 to 161.6 
179.6 
300.2 


8 

11 

8 

2 

4 

6 

2 
50 
32.5 

8 

5 

1 

8 
13 

3 

1 

5 

3 

5 

8 

8 

10 
12 
16 
16 
22 
32 
32 
30 


4 
3 
3 

2 
1 

2 

4 

36 

48 

"s" 

1 

3 

3 

2 

1 

3 

2 

3 

4 

8 

8 

8 

14 

12 

24 

36 

28 

24 


..„.. 


3 

2 
10 

1 

1 
1 to 2 

1 

2 
22.5 
10.5 


15 


Eeadily fusible alloy... 

«( <( u 
M (( (( 
«( (( « 

Wood's alloy. 


16 

8 

3 

4 

5 to 8 


Soft solder 


7 


«< << 
Cliche metal 




9 






1 




202.0 
200.5 
274.2 




8 




2 


<< u 




8 


Eeadily fusible met- "] 
al for casts from ! 




6 






5 


plaster of Paris f 
moulds, etc. J 




2 




8 


212.0 
212.0 
235.9 
253.9 
266.0 
270.3 
289.9 
293.7 
308.8 
320.3 
331.7 
341.6 


2.5 






8 


(C << 


8 


K (( 




8 


K U 




8 
8 


(( H 




8 


«< (( 




8 


(i St 
« << 
U It 




8 
8 
8 


(« «( 




8 









Iron Alloy. — A compact, very malleable iron alloy capable of taking 
a high polish has been patented in England by W. M. Arnold. It is 
obtained by melting together pig iron, 50 lbs. ; sodium, i lb. ; copper and 
antimony, each, i lb., and zinc, 2$ lbs. It is claimed to be especially 
suitable for ships' screws, it resisting quite well the corroding action 
of sea-water. By omitting the sodium and decreasing the quantity ot 
zinc a softer variety of iron is obtained, while the addition of larger 
quantities of soda and zinc and the decrease of the content of copper 
yield a harder material. 



BONE, IVOKY, WOOD, ETC. 369 



BONE, IVORY, MOTHER-OF PEARL, 
WOOD. 

To Stain Bone and Ivory Brown. — Free the articles as much as 
possible from adhering grease by treating them with petroleum ether or 
so-called sulphuric ether. On account of the great inflammability of 
these two bodies, this work should never be done by lamp-light or in 
the neighborhood of a flame. After being freed from grease the 
articles are placed 5 to 15 minutes at the ordinary temperature of a 
room in a mixture of 1 oz. 7 drachms of hydrochloric acid and 
1 quart of water. They are then thoroughly washed with water and 
placed in a solution of2.82 drachms of potassium permanganate in 1 
quart of water. Care must be had that the solution when it is to be 
used does not contain undissolved crystals of the potassium perman- 
ganate which might give rise to a spotted coloration. According to 
the shade of color desired, the articles remain for a shorter or 
longer time in the solution, which, however, must not be heated. The 
article having acquired the desired degree of coloration, it is taken 
from the solution, washed with water, and, after drying, polished in the 
usual manner. 

In order to obtain more reddish colorations the article after polish- 
ing is placed in a solution of fuchsine, or still better, in one of a variety 
of fuchsine known as grenadine, which is prepared by dissolving 5.64 
drachms of the coloring substance in 1 quart of water. In a short time 
the pure, brownish coloration passes into a reddish brown, which by 
continued treatment with the last mentioned solution can be still 
further changed to red without losing the fundamental color. 

To make Horn Buttons Iridescent. — Dissol ve 10 parts of pure me- 
thyl-violet in 80 of 95 per cent, alcohol, filter the solution through filter- 
ing paper and add 4 parts of sandarac, the solution of which is accelerated 
by frequent shaking. The sandarac being dissolved, liquefy £ part of 
Venetian turpentine in a suitable vessel over a fire and pour the liquid, 
after taking it from the fire, with constant stirring, into the sandarac 
solution and allow the whole to stand a few days to permit the impuri- 
ties contained in the sandarac to settle. The buttons sewed upon cards 
are then uniformly lacquered by means of a fine camel's hair brush, 
care being had not to soil the cards. 

The buttons now show a brown, copper-like, metallic lustre, which 
can be converted into iridescent colors by various chemical agents. By 
brushing the buttons with dilute hydrochloric acid, a surface showing all 
the colors of the rainbow is obtained ; the same effect being also produced 
by simply moistening with saliva. A pale red iridescent coloration is 
produced with vinegar ; by repeating the application several times the 
color approaches that produced with hydrochloric acid. To impart to the 
buttons a dark green iridescent color, brush them lightly over with a rag 
moistened with oil, care being had to wipe the buttons dry immediately 
afterwards with a woolen rag. Similar effects are produced by aqueous 
solutions of ferrous sulphate, cupric sulphate, potassium bichromate, 
common salt, borax, and many other salts. With permanganate of 
potash all colorations from pale red to dark red, violet, blue, and green 
can be produced. The less concentrated the solution, and the shorter 
the time it is allowed to act, the paler the coloration produced will be. 



370 

Dissolve 1 part of permanganate of potash in 16 of distilled water; 
and to produce a green iridescent color brush over the buttons sewed 
upon cards with the solution. By further diluting this concentrated 
solution with 8 parts of water the buttons acquire a blue iridescent 
color, and by a further addition of 8 parts of water a violet iridescent 
color ; by further dilution a dark red iridescent color is obtained, and 
by still further adding water a pale red iridescent color. 

To Cleanse Ivory Ornaments. — These are very quickly cleaned 
by brushing them with a new, not very sharp, tooth-brush to which 
little soap is given ; then rinse the ornaments in lukewarm water. 
Next dry and brush a little and continue brushing until the lustre re- 
appears, which can be increased by pouring a little alcohol upon the 
brush and applying it to the trinket. Should this have become yellow 
dry it in a gentle heat and it will appear as if new. 

Dyeing- Mother-of-Pearl. — Mother-of-pearl is dyed by allowing it 
to remain for several days in an ammoniacal solution of nitrate of silver 
(1 nitrate, 80 distilled water, and 20 water of ammonia); remove the 
pieces and subject them to the action of a current of sulphuretted hydro- 
gen till the desired shade is obtained. 

Impregnation of Wooden Barrels, etc., for the Reception of 
Fat, Oil and Petroleum.— Dissolve in 1000 parts by weight of filtered 
water 110 of ferrous sulphate (copperas), and after adding for every 400 
parts by weight of the solution 200 to 500 parts of glue allow the whole to 
stand 12 hours. Then add for every 500 parts by weight of glue 600 of 
molasses, 20 of cane sugar, and finally 600 of solution of ferrous sulphate. 
Heat upon a water-bath, whereby the mixture becomes fluid, and apply 
to the surface of the wood by means of a brush. For barrels pour a 
suitable quantity through the bung-hole, and roll so that the interior 
is uniformly coated with the mass. 

Impregnation of Wood. — By allowing masses of lime to remain in 
contact with solutions of fluo-silicic acid, calcium fluoride (fluorspar), 
calcium silicate and silicic acid are formed, the fluo-silicic acid being 
decomposed. If, now, the above-mentioned reactions take place in a 
porous wood which has been successively impregnated with the above- 
stated solutions of lime and silicic acid, fluorspar, calcium silicate, and 
silicic acid are formed within the wood substance, and, so to say, pet- 
rify the wood. By simultaneously using, besides the above-mentioned 
agents, bituminous, resinous, fatty, or oily substances for the impreg- 
nation of the wood, the latter is rendered capable of resisting the in- 
fluence of moisture, and is at the same time, so to say, mineralized. 
Vati Berkel's method of impregnating wood, which is based upon the 
above-described process, consists in treating the wood to be impregnated 
with a saturated solution of lime water or of milk of lime for some 
time, according to the porosity of the wood, and then drying. With the 
use of a vacuum impregnating boiler the dry calcareous wood is then 
impregnated with a suitable mixture of silicic acid with a mineral oil 
or other bituminous, resinous, fatty, or oily fluids, which are previously 
heated to render them more thinly fluid. The wood is kept for some 
time under pressure and then again dried. The operation may also be 
carried on in the reverse order, or in such a manner that the fluo-silicic 
acid t lime, and bitumen are introduced into the wood each by itself, or 



WOOD, ETC. 371 

first the fluo-silicic acid and then the bitumen mixed with milk of 
lime. Besides lime water other reagents brought into combination with 
silicic acid might permit the practical execution of the invention and 
produce the petrifaction of the wood. If, for instance, a block of wood 
is impregnated with dilute water-glass or alum, there remain in the 
wood substance, after the evaporation of the water by drying, silicic 
acid and soda, or aluminium as a residue. By a further impregnation 
with a mixture of bituminous substances and silicic acid, silicic acid 
and cryolite are obtained in the wood, petrifying the wood-substance 
with still better technical effect and, in consequence of the presence of 
the bitumen, rendering it at the same time impermeable to moisture. 

To Prevent "Warping- of Wood and of wooden objects in damp air, \ 
saturate them with copaiba balsam. Articles already warped on one 
side can be straightened by saturating the other side with the balsam. 

To Preserve "Wooden Posts. — The ends of the thoroughly dry posts 
which are to be put in the ground are placed in lime water 1.18 to 1.57 
inches deep, and after taking out and drying, painted with diluted 
sulphuric acid. The posts thus treated become hard as stone and are 
far more durable than when carbonized or coated with tar. 

Stain for Oak. — Boil for half an hour 2 ozs. 13 drachms of dry 
sodium carbonate and 8 ozs. 13 drachms of finely prepared pale ochre 
in 2 quarts of rain water and then add 2 more quarts of water. To this 
stain add 24 ozs. 11 drachms of a mass prepared by boiling 1 lb. of 
yellow wax, 2 quarts of water and 2 ozs. 7 drachms of potash and 
stirring till cold. 

Darkening- the Natural Hue of Wood. — This is effected by a solu- 
tion composed of equal parts of manganate of soda and crystallized 
Epsom salts, dissolved m twenty to thirty times the amount of water 
at about 144° F. The less water employed the darker will be the hue. 

To give New Oak Wainscoting and Furniture an Antique Ap- N 
pearance. — Oak is fumigated by liquid ammonia, strength 880 degrees, 
which may be bought at any wholesale chemist's. The wood should 
be placed in a dark and air-tight room (in a big packing case if you 
like) and half a pint or so of ammonia poured into a soup plate and 
placed upon the ground in the centre of the compartment. This done 
shut the entrance and secure the cracks, if any, by pasted slips of 
paper. Remember that the ammonia does not touch the oak, but the 
gas that comes from it acts in a wondrous manner upon the tannic acid 
in the wood and browns it so deeply that a shaving or two may actually 
be taken off without removing the color. The depth of shade will 
entirely depend upon the quantity of ammonia used and the time the 
wood is exposed. 

Ebony Color upon Wood.— Boil 1 part of logwood with 10 of water, 
strain and evaporate to one-half the volume. To 1 quart of the fluid 
thus obtained add 10 to 15 drops of a neutral, thoroughly saturated 
solution of indigo and apply the decoction several times to the wood 
previously stained with a hot saturated solution of alum. Next brush 
the wood over with a hot concentrated solution of verdigris in acetic 
acid until the desired black shade is obtained. 



f 



372 BONE, IVORY, WOOD, ETC. 

A Beautiful Gray-green color upon wood is produced by first 
brushing the wood over with a solution of 1 part of pyrogallic acid in 
20 of water and after drying with a solution of 1 part of aniline green 
in 12 of alcohol. 

A Dark Green is obtained with a solution of 1 part of indigo blue 
in 5 of water mixed with a concentrated solution of 2 parts of pure 
picric acid in boiling water. 

To Color "Wood Black. — Hard woods (oak, ash, beech, maple, etc.) 
are rubbed with glass paper, placed in an alum solution (1 : 18) which 
contains 2 per cent, of glycerine, and dried. The wood is then impreg- 
nated with the following coloring substance: Boil for 1 hour, con- 
stantly replacing the water lost by evaporation, 1 part of logwood, 10 
of gall nuts and 100 of water. Then press out and filter and with 
constant stirring and heating add the solutions of 1 part of sulphate of 
iron and 1 part of copper acetate each in 2 parts of water. Filter the 
mixture and finally add 1 part of indigo solution. The wood impreg- 
nated with this coloring substance and dried at an ordinary temperature 
is brushed over with a solution of 1 part of iron powder in 10 of vin- 
egar and when thoroughly dry vigorously rubbed with a mixture of 4 
parts of linseed oil and 1 of oil of turpentine. 

~\ 

Ivory Gloss on "Wood. — There are two kinds of varnish used to 
produce this white gloss — one a solution of colorless resin in turpen- 
tine, the other in alcohol. For the first, pure copal is taken; for the 
second, 16 parts of sandarac are dissolved in sufficient strong alcohol 
to which are added 3 parts of camphor ; and lastly, when all are dis- 
solved by shaking, 5 parts of Venetian turpentine are added. In order 
to cause the color to remain a pure white, care must be taken not to 
mix the oil with the white paint previously put on. Best French zinc 
paint mixed with turpentine is to be employed. When dry this is 
rubbed down with sand-paper, and this is followed with the application 
of the varnish above described. 

Crystalline Coating- upon Wood or Paper is obtained by mixing 
a very concentrated solution of salt with dextrin and applying a coat of 
this fluid as thin as possible to the surface to be coated by means of a 
broad, soft brush. The dry coating presents a beautiful light mother- 
of-pearl appearance, and by means of the dextrin adheres firmly to the 
wood or paper. Such a coating can also be applied to glass by pre- 
viously coating the latter with an alcoholic solution of shellac. The 
following salts are best adapted for the formation of the most beautiful 
crystalline coatings : Sulphate of magnesia, acetate of sodium and 
sulphate of tin. The paper must be sized. Colored glass gives a good 
effect. 

To protect Wood Exposed to the Influence of Acids and High 
Tension of Steam, the following process is recommended : Mix inti- 
mately 2 partsof plaster of pari s and 1 part of finely pulverized asbestos 
with fresh ox blood to a thick paste which can be applied with a brush. 
The wood, which should be thoroughly dry, is then painted with this 
mixture and allowed to dry. After a few hours a second coat is given 
to which a very small addition of linseed oil varnish may suitably be 
made. To secure complete hardening of the coats a small charcoal fire 



373 

over which the wood is suspended may be used, though air-drying for 
a few days suffices. Steam is then allowed to act slowly upon the 
wood and the latter dried for some time before use. With proper 
treatment the coat adheres firmly, does not show fissures nor crack off". 

Prevention of Worms in Wood Work. — Some woods are more 
subject than others to be destroyed by worms and insects, such as alder, 
beech, birch, and in general all soft woods, of which the juices are of a sac- 
charine nature. Against the common worm oil of spike is an excellent 
remedy; and oil of juniper or oil of turpentine will prevent its rav- 
ages to some degree. A free use of linseed oil is a good preservative, 
and so is a covering of copal varnish ; but these can be applied to small 
articles only. Another application is sulphur, which has been im- 
mersed in nitric acid and distilled to dryness, which, being exposed to 
the air, dissolves into an oil ; the parts to be secured from the worm are 
to be anointed with this oil, which does not give an unpleasant odor 
to the wood. Lime is an excellent preservative against the worm, and 
sap-wood should always be impregnated with it when used in a dry 
situation. As worms do not attack bitter woods, soaking wood in an 
infusion of quassia has been tried, and is said to have the desired 
effect. 

\ 

To Give Wood Some of the Special Characteristics of Metal. 
— By this recently invented process the surface of the wood becomes so 
hard and smooth as to be susceptible of a high polish and may be treated 
with a burnisher of either glass or porcelain ; the appearance of the wood 
being then in every respect that of polished metal, having, in fact, the 
semblance of a polished mirror, but with this peculiar and advantageous 
difference, that, unlike metal, it is unaffected by moisture. To reach 
this result the wood is steeped in a bath of caustic alkali for two or 
three days together, according to its degree of permeability, at a tem- 
perature of between 165° and 197° F. It is then placed in a second 
bath of hydrosulphate of calcium to which a concentrated solution of 
sulphur is added after some 24 or 36 hours. The third bath is one of 
acetate of lead at a temperature of from 95° to 120° F., and in this 
latter the wood is allowed to remain from 30 to 50 hours. After being 
subjected to a thorough drying, it is in a condition for being polished 
with lead, tin, or zinc as may be desired, finishing the process with a 
burnisher, when the wood apparently becomes a piece of shining, 
polished metal. 

Imitation of Wood Carving". — Old oak or other carvings in low 
relief may be very effectively and easily imitated, almost in fac-simile, 
by the following process : Procure some "basil " leather, and wet it thor- 
oughly in warm water in which a small-quantity of size or glue has been 
mixed ; wipe it as dry as possible with a cloth, then cut a piece suffi- 
ciently large to cover the carving and allow a small margin ; lay it upon 
the carving and press with the finger all over, in order that the leather 
may take the shape of the carving as much as possible. Next, with a 
smooth-pointed tool made of bone — say the handle of a tooth brush, 
filed down till it assumes a blunt knife shape — go over tne surface care- 
fully, pressing the leather into all the interstices of the design and 
smoothing the larger or bolder portions until you have succeeded in 
bringing out all the details. Of course, this process can only be applied 
to carvings which are not under-cut. If the superfluous moisture has 



374 BONE, IVORY, WOOD, ETC. 

been removed from the leather in the first instance, it may lmv be 
easily taken from the carving without interfering with its shape, but 
if not, it must be left until partially dry. When taken off the leather 
should be placed in a warm place to dry thoroughly, when it will be 
found to be quite stiff and may be coated thickly at the back with a 
layer of guttapercha, or with the following mixture: Pitch, resin, 
plaster of paris, equal parts; melt the pitch and resin together, and 
then stir in the plaster of paris. If a small quantity of wax candle be 
added to the mixture it will be rendered tougher. The imitation may 
now be applied to the use for which it was intended, and if treated with 
dark distemper oak stain and oiled, will look wonderfully like genuine 
carved oak. \ 



A 



"Waxing- Hard-Wood Floors. — One of the best methods of prepar- 
ing the wax and waxing the floor is as follows : Take a pound of the best 
beeswax, cut it up into very small pieces and let it thoroughly dissolve 
in 3 pints of turpentine, stirring occasionally if necessary. The mix- 
ture should be only a trifle thicker than the clear turpentine. Apply 
it with a rag to the surface of the floor, which should be smooth and 
perfectly clean. This is the difficult part of the work, for if you put on 
either too little or too much, a good polish will be impossible. The 
right amount varies, less being required for hard, close-grained wood 
and more if the wood is soft and open-grained. Even professional 
" waxers " are sometimes obliged to experiment, and novices should 
always try a square foot or two first. Put on what you think will be 
enough, and leave the place untouched and unstepped on for 24 hours 
or longer if necessary. When it is thoroughly dry rub it with a hard 
brush until it shines. If it polishes well, repeat the process over the 
entire floor. If it does not, remove the wax with fine sand-paper and 
try again, using more or less than before, as may be necessary, and con- 
tinue your experimenting until you secure the desired result. If the 
mixture is slow in drying, add a little of the common "driers" sold by 
paint dealers, japan for instance, in the proportion of 1 part of the drier 
to 6 parts of turpentine. When the floor is a large one you may vary 
the tedious work of polishing by strapping a brush to each foot and 
skating over it. A properly waxed hard wood floor renders an engine 
room always attractive, it giving the room an appearance of neatness 
and comfort. 

Veneering-. — The modern art of building calls for a large variety of 
finished work, especially for interiors. Many domestic woods, and 
nearly all of the foreign products, may be used for veneers. Of the 
first we have walnut, maple, cherry and oak; while of the foreign 
woods the list comprises, in addition to the above named, tortoise (or 
zebra) wood, ebony, mahogany, rosewood, sandal wood, holly, bay- 
wood and satinwood. 

The first process to insure good work is to j^repare the panel or piece 
of work to be veneered, in a perfect manner ; that is, the piece should" 
be thoroughly dry ; natural dried wood is the' best, but kiln-dried lum- 
ber will do under many circumstances. 

The surface should be perfectly straight and out of wind. This may 
be done with the trying-plane, after being jointed. Then follow Wilb 
a toothing-plane, first with the grain and then crosswise. If white or 
yellow pine is used a coarse toothing-plane is best. It may here be 
mentioned that pine or soft wood is the best, and should always be used 



WOOD, ETC. 375 

as a base for veneering, as the glue has the effect of penetrating better 
than in hard, close-grained wood. 

After toothing use No. 2 or 2£ sand-paper crosswise and do the work 
thoroughly. Having prepared all the panels or work in this way, 
proceed to size them with one part of the best glue, boiled in 50 
parts of water, prepared in a double glue-pot iu the usual manner. 
Brush over the panel with hot glue, and after having gone over the 
work thoroughly and allowing it to dry (having glue-sized all the work) 
go over it again with a view of detecting any defects not filled ; if found, 
fill them with plaster of paris wet up in water ; and touch up these 
parts with glue-size. See that the work has a smooth, even surface. If 
not, level it off with a flat rasp. In preparing the veneer, which may 
be had of any required thickness from dealers, select the parts best 
adapted for the work to be done, as the centres of panels or prominent 
places likely to be seen. Cut the veneer rather larger than the panel 
or piece to be veneered, to allow for leveling at the ends and sides. If 
the veneer is uneven in surface, or curled badly, as is the case with 
some selected pieces, dampen the back, and if there is more than one 
piece, lay them together, the first with the dry side upward and the 
second the same way, thus bringing a dry and wet side together; let 
.them stand, say 5 hours, when they will be ready to cut. 

The next process for getting each veneer flat and ready to lay 
smoothly, is to place each piece between two smooth pieces of pine a 
little larger than the veneer. The pine pieces should be heated hot 
hefore a bright fire; then placing each veneer between them, apply 
hand-screws for half an hour, and they will come out perfectly flat; 
prepare each separate veneer in this way, and if the first damping and 
pressing does not bring them out, try until it does. This is termed 
flatting. 

Veneers sometimes come with serious defects, or holes, which require 
filling. To remedy this evil, select a small piece of the veneer that has 
been flatted, and which best matches the grain to be patched or filled ; 
place it under the hole, and cut it out square or angular, as is deemed 
best ; cut both at the same time with a chisel or knife-blade. 

If the veneers are in small pieces and not large enough for the 
finished panel, and they must be matched, select the several pieces so 
that they will appear to the best advantage when in the panel ; then 
turn them face upwards and fit to them narrow strips of thin but strong 
paper; after cutting the joints of the veneers to match nicely, glue the 
strips of paper on the face over the joint, a little distance apart, and 
press down on a flat board with a damp cloth. Before joining the two 
veneers together, secure them in place with small tacks, to hold them 
temporarily. Glue the joints and cover with paper on the face, as 
before mentioned, say strips 2& inches wide. After they are all pre- 
pared lay them away under a board to keep from curling and drying 
too quickly. 

The next process is laying. This process is generally done with a 
veneering caul. To make a caul take a piece of dry pine rather larger 
than the surface to be veneered ; have it true and flat, and if large, put 
one or two good battens on the back ; then cover the face with zinc and 
tack the edge over the edge of the caul. For laying use the very best 
glue, prepared in the most careful manner, as glue is the life of 
good veneering. When prepared so as to spread smoothly under a 
medium-sized brush, and the veneers and caul are close at hand, heat 
the caul on a stove or before a hot fire ; glue the ground-work or panel ; 



376 BONE, IVORY, WOOD, ETC. 

place the veneer in position, and press gently over it with the hand ; 
then place the hot caul on the veneer, first rubbing the caul with a greased 
cloth. Put on the hand-screws and clamps, slowly tightening them up. 
They should be about 4 to 6 inches apart. Give them all the same 
pressure, as near as may be. Let the caul remain for one hour. When 
taking it off, if it sticks on account of not being well greased, a thin 
knife-blade or chisel will pry it up ; but it should be done carefully. If 
there should be any blistering, showing that the glue was not well 
spread out, put on a small caul, enough to cover the spot, and let it 
remain on for two hours. After the veneer panel, or work, has stood, 
say two or three days, scrape off the paper on the face, first wetting it 
with hot water; use a steel scraper, or chisel, for thin veneer, or a 
smoothing plane for thick. Finally size the face of the veneer with 
thin glue and rub off with a cloth or the hand. When dry, it may be 
fine sand-papered and smoothed up and finished in oil, or in any way 
thought best. The introduction of muslin or paper between the base 
and veneer is a method which requires considerable practice and is not 
necessary in small work. 

Another and new method of securing veneers to the base consists in 
first spreading the glue, or any other substance used for the purpose, 
upon the base, passing the two parts between two heated rollers, which 
melts the glue to a proper consistency for entering the pores of the 
wood. The veneered pieces are then passed between chilled rollers, 
which sets and hardens the glue, and thus prevents the shrinkage 
caused by slow drying, which is one of the difficulties of veneering by 
hand. Very thin veneers are now manufactured and furnished to the 
trade with paper backing; that is, the veneers are exceed in gly thin and 
backed up with a strong, thin paper put on with gJue. When using 
this kind of veneer, it can be put on without glue or caul, the advan- 
tage being that it can be applied on wood or walls with flour paste. 

Gilding* of Wood Moulding*, Cornices and Frames. — Put boiled 
linseed oil in a saucer and expose it to the air for three or four days 
carefully protected from dust; then mix it with a little yellow ochre 
ground in oil and give the frame a coat of this, and let it stand for 24 
hours, when the frame will be ready to receive the gilding. Another 
mode of preparing the frame is to cover it successively with 8 or 10 
coats of size mixed with whiting. The last coat is composed 
of size and massicot, sometimes yellow ochre. Let it dry thor 
oughly, and then dampen the surface a little at a time with a we* 
sponge and apply the gold leaf before this dries; it will immediately 
adhere. Take a piece of tissue paper about 2 inches square, rub one 
side of the paper lightly over with beeswax or composite candle, then 
cut the leaf the size of the frame and apply, rubbing gently with the 
finger, and when the whole frame is covered, pat gently with cotton 
wool. Each piece should overlap t<j inch. In gilding with a tip, the 
frame should be painted with white paint three times, then let it harden 
and afterwards rub well with fine glass cloth. Then apply oil gold 
size and put the frame aside from dust until it is only slightly damp. 
There is a particular state, or degree of dryness, known only by experi- 
ence, in which the moulding is in a fit state for burnishing. A large 
share of the elegance which a golden frame presents is due to the 
judicious mixture of burnish and matt or dead gold, and the gilder 
determines what members of the moulding shall be burnished. The 
burnishers used by the gilder are either of flint or agate, generally the 



BONE, IVORY, WOOD, ETC. 377 

former. The steel burnishers employed by the jeweler would not do 
for the gilder. It frequently causes surprise that the burnisher cau be 
rubbed briskly over the gold without injuring or rubbing it off, but it 
is to be remembered that there is a yielding foundation into which the 
gold is pressed, and that the brilliancy attained is derived from level- 
ing the little asperities in the gold and the gold size beneath it. If 
gold were laid on wood or even on whiting it would not receive a 
burnish. 

Novelty in Inlaid Floors. — A novel and beautiful improvement 
in inlaid floors has been devised by Christian Mom berg, of Copenha- 
gen, Denmark. The novelty in this improvement consists in the varied 
styles of ornamental flooring which it is possible to produce. This 
improved inlaid or marquet flooring consists of beams or joists provided 
with rabbetted edges and a series of intermediate tilling strips having 
grooves in their end edges, the grooves fitting over the upper tongues 
formed by the rabbetted edges of the joists. The filling strips are also 
provided on their side edges with longitudinal flanges. The joists are 
laid transversely across and secured to the usual supporting girders in 
any desired manner, and, in practice, the filling strips are introduced 
from the open end of the frame, the grooves of the strips engaging the 
upper flange of the joists. The lower flanges formed by the rabbetted 
edges of the joists extend laterally a greater distance than their upper 
flanges, thereby assisting to support the intermediate pieces and also 
the filling blocks. These filling blocks are square or rectangular in 
shape, having on their edges, which border on the joists, grooves sim- 
ilar to those in the end edges of the filling strips, and also provided on 
their other two edges or sides with under cuts adapted to overlap the 
flanges of the filling strips, thereby bringing the upper surface of these 
blocks flush with that of the intermediate filling strips. By this con- 
struction the upper tongues formed by the grooved edges of the filling 
blocks and intermediate filling strips will overlap the upper tongues 
of the joists, making a filling space throughout the entire length of 
the joists, which may be filled with veneering of any ornamental 
design or pattern, thus producing an even floor, the strips of veneering 
being of sufficient thickness to fill in the space above the joists. 

In constructing this floor, the filling strips, as stated, are first intro- 
duced from the open end of the frame, after which a row, or series of 
filling blocks is inserted, the upper tongues of the joists, as in the 
case of the filling strips, engaging the grooved ends of the blocks. In 
this manner the filling strips and blocks are inserted in regular order 
until the flooring has been completed. The filling strips and blocks 
are decorated upon their upper surface in any ornamental pattern cor- 
responding in design to the veneering above the joist. By employing 
this method of constructing inlaid flooring, not only does the inventor 
avoid the expense, but also the various other drawbacks incident to the 
use of the ordinary wooden floors under the inlaid flooring, the chief 
objection to that construction being that the planks which are placed 
under the veneers are often uneven, or become so by shrinkage or from 
other causes. Whenever this happens the warping of the underlying 
floor will, of course, affect the inlaid floor more or less, thus marring 
its effect and also destroying its durability. 

To Prevent Exudations of Turpentine from Pine-wood. — 
To prevent exudations of turpentine from painted pine-wood it is rec- 
26 



378 BEONZING, ETC., OF METALS. 

ommended to cover the knots in the wood, before applying the paint, 
with a mixture of equal parts of slacked lime and red lead. On dry- 
ing, the mass absorbs the turpentine in the same manner as oil is re- 
moved from a floor by means of pipe-clay. By several times repeating 
the process the exudations of turpentine after painting is prevented. 

To Remove Paint from a Wooden Carving without Dam- 
aging the Wood. — Mix one part by weight of pearlash with three 
parts lime by slacking the lime in water and then adding the pearlash, 
making the mixture about the consistency of paint. With an old brush 
lay the above over the whole of the work required to be cleaned ; let it 
remain 14 or 16 hours, when the paint can be easily scraped off. 



BRONZING, COLORING, ELECTROPLAT- 
ING, ENAMELLING, ETC., OF METALS. 

Bronzing" of Tin. — Prepare first two solutions, one of 1 part ferrous 
sulphate (green vitriol), 1 part cupric sulphate (blue vitriol), and 20 
parts of distilled water, and the other of 4 parts verdigris and 16 parts 
vinegar. Thoroughly clean the article by means of a clean brush 
with a fine earth and water, and after thorough drying apply to both 
sides a light coat of the first solution by means of a brush. After dry- 
ing the article presents a blackish appearance. The second solution is 
then applied with a brush until the article acquires a dark copper-red 
color, it is now allowed to dry one hour and then polished with a 
soft brush and finely elutriated bloodstone, the surface being fre- 
quently breathed upon so as to make the bloodstone adhere. It is 
finally polished with the brush alone, which is from time to time drawn 
over the palm of the hand. To protect the bronze against moisture 
cover it with a very thin layer of gold lacquer. 

To Bronze Zinc Fret Work. — Coat the metal with a very thin 
gold size, and when nearly dry rub on a sufficient quantity of red 
bronze (bronze powder), dry, and burnish. 

Bronzing Copper.— Dissolve in 11 gallons of hydrochloric acid as 
much as possible of iron in fine wire or scales. When the liquid is 
saturated a deposit will form at the bottom. Then add 2.2 lbs. of ar- 
senious acid and stir vigorously. When the acid is dissolved the bath 
is complete. The objects to be bronzed are connected to the negative 
pole of a battery, the opposite electrode being formed of rods or plates 
of retort carbon. Articles of copper or brass become black at once, but 
those of iron are attacked by the bath. It is therefore necessary to 
nickel the latter. In order to preserve the deposit of iron the surface 
must be lacquered. 

To Bronze Steam Pipes used for Steam Heating. — Paint the 
pipes with ordinary chrome yellow and, when nearly dry, rub gold 
bronze powder upon the surface with a piece of fur. When thoroughly 
dry varnish the surface with a very thin copal or mastic varnish. 



ETC., OF METALS. 379 

Approved Coatings for Metals. — 1. Black or Colored Coat. 
Dissolve flowers of sulphur, about 5 to 10 per cent., in hot oil of tur- 
pentine and gradually add to the solution with constant stirring a 
corresponding quantity of linseed oil varnish. A black paint is 
obtained by the addition of solution of asphalt, and any other desired 
color by mixing with non-metallic coloring substances. This paint 
protects the metal coated with it by superficially converting it into 
sulphur combinations. 

2. Golden Yellow to Brown Coat. Place a sufficient quantity of 
vulcanized rubber in small pieces in an earthen put provided with a 
well-fitting lid upon glowing coals for 5 minutes ; do not remove the lid 
as the vapors developed are very inflammable. Pour the melted mass 
into a tin dish to cool ; for the easier removal of the cooled mass it is 
advisable to slightly grease the tin dish. Next break up the mass into 
small pieces, put them in a capacious bottle, pour benzine and rectified 
oil of turpentine upon them and shake frequently until all is dissolved 
except a slight sediment. The fluid poured off from the sediment is an 
excellent quickly-drying varnish which adheres firmly to metals and 
can also be recommended for electrical apparatus. 

3. Black Coat. To obtain this it is first necessary to procure very 
good and pure platinum chloride. It is best prepared by dissolving 
platinum in aqicaregia (3 parts hydrochloric acid and 1 nitric acid). 
By evaporating the solution the desired platinum chloride is obtained 
in the form of crystals which are dissolved in water. A very beautiful 
and durable black color is produced upon the articles by dipping them 
into the solution or coating them with a moistened sponge. The same 
effect is also produced by allowing the crystals to deliquesce in the air 
and vigorously rubbing the metal with the moist powder by means of 
a piece of leather, or smaller articles with the thumb or palm of the 
hand. To obtain good results the articles to be blackened must be 
given a pure metallic surface by turning or in some other manner, 
carefully polished and especially freed from adhering grease by rubbing 
with Vienna lime, jewelers' rouge, etc. Various shades of color can 
be produced. The articles treated as above described are dead black ; a 
lustrous black color is obtained by polishing with a soft piece of leather 
moistened with oil, and a lustrous gray-black color by polishing with 
the burnisher or burnishing stone. The color, especially when polished, 
is very durable, since platinum is not changed by the action of the air. 
A black color may also be obtained by the following process: First 
brush the article over with nitric acid and after drying by heating 
brush vigorously to obtain uniformity. Then lay the article over a 
vessel containing solution of liver of sulphur and expose it to the action 
of the developing sulphuretted hydrogen. 

4. Beautiful Steel Gray. This coating is obtained by the use of a 
mixture prepared as follows : Triturate 3.85 grains of lampblack with 
3 to 4 drops of gold-size oil in a dish to a homogeneous coherent mass 
and carefully dilute the latter with 24 drops of oil of turpentine. This 
mixture is especially suitable for optical instruments. Apply a very 
thin and uniform coating to the articles by means of a fine brush and 
allow to dry thoroughly. 

Protecting" Iron and Steel by Electrolysis. —The methods at 
present in use for the prevention of oxidation of steel aud iron have 
all the same object, namely, the formation of a coating of magnetic 
oxide of iron; but all of them are more or less unsatisfactory. Con- 



380 BRONZING, ETC., OF METALS. 

siderable time is usually required, and there is no certainty that the 
protection will be perfect. M. de Meritens has been experimenting for 
some time on an electrolytic method of obtaining the same results and 
has finally been successful. The process is as follows : The article is 
exposed to a current of electricity in a bath consisting of ordinary 
water, or, better, of distilled water, heated from 158° to 176° F. The 
object to be coated is made the anode, while a strip of carbon, copper, 
or iron serves for the cathode ; or, if an iron tank is used, the sides of 
the tank may form the cathode. The current should only have an 
electro-motive force slightly in excess of that required to decompose 
water, as too strong a current produces a pulverulent form of the 
oxide, which does not properly adhere; moreover, it has the incon- 
venience of eating into polished surfaces. The operation should be 
conducted in the same manner as electrotyping. In the course of a few 
minutes black coloration appears on the article, and after one or two 
hours the coating of magnetic oxide of iron is of sufficient solidity to 
resist pol ishing. The coating is found to penetrate into the mass of the 
metal ; for if the external portion be removed by means of emery, and 
the white under-surface be again exposed in the bath, it becomes black 
again almost immediately, demonstrating that the effect of the first elec- 
trolyzing has affected the mass to some depth. When a piece of rusty 
iron is treated by the current in a warm water-bath in the manner 
described, the rust, consisting of ferric oxide, is completely converted 
into magnetic oxide. The exterior layers are not adhesive, but the 
interior coating is almost as hard as the metal itself. The best pro- 
cesses hitherto employed for coating steel goods require at least eight 
or ten days, and only imperfect results are obtained when applied to 
wrought or cast iron. De Meritens' process treats all sorts of iron and 
steel effectually in a few hours, requires no preliminary preparation, 
and can be applied as easily to rough as to polished surfaces. The 
coating is a brilliant black, is very hard, and it is difficult to attack it 
with lime ; moreover, it is not easily wetted with water. 

Bronze -Colored Coating- of Oxide upon Iron. — By the follow- 
ing process iron articles, especially for artistical purposes, can be 
readily provided with a beautiful bronze-colored coating of oxide, 
which is quite proof against the influence of moisture, and has the fur- 
ther advantage that every desired bronze color can be produced in a 
simple manner. Free the articles from grease and, after polishing 
them, expose them to the vapors of a mixture of concentrated hydro- 
chloric and nitric acid (1 : 1) for two to five minutes. Continue the 
heating until the bronze color appears upon the articles. After 
thoroughly rubbing in with vaseline heat again until the vaseline be- 
gins to decompose. After cooling the article is again thoroughly 
rubbed with vaseline. By exposing the iron articles to the vapors of a 
mixture of concentrated hydrochloric and nitric acid, light red brown 
shades are obtained. By adding, however, acetic acid to the mixture, 
and allowing the vapors to act upon the, iron, coatings of oxide of a 
beautiful bronze yellow color may be obtained. By various mixtures 
of acids coatings of oxide of all possible shades, from dark to light red- 
brown, from dark brown-yellow to light bronze-yellow may be produced 
upon iron. In this manner 5-feet long T bars for iron boxes have been 
coated with such layers of oxide, and though they were exposed for 10 
months to the action of the air of a laboratory constantly filled with 
acid vapors they did not show the slightest alteration. 



ETC., OF METALS. 381 

Coating- to Protect Wrought-iron Pipes against Rust. — Mix 
crude asphalt 28 parts, coal tar free from oily substances 72 parts ; or 
refined asphalturn 16i parts, coal tar free from oily substances 83i parts, 
and boil the mixture until it is of a suitable consistency. If the lac- 
quer does not adhere well or cracks off, the mixture has been either 
superheated or the tar or asphalt contained too much oily substance. 

To Enamel Cast-iron. — The cast-iron utensils are first cleansed 
with sand and dilute acid, washed and dried. A thin coat of gum 
arabic solution is then applied with a brush and the finely-powdered 
enamel scattered upon the layer of gum. The enamel is prepared by 
fusing together a mixture of 130 parts of pulverized flint glass, 20 parts 
of calcined soda and 12 parts of borax. The mass thus obtained is pow- 
dered when cold. The delicate powder is scattered over the iron vessel 
coated with gum solution, and the vessels are dried in an oven having 
a temperature of 212° F. They are then heated in another oven to a 
red heat, whereby the enamel melts and coats the sides of the vessel 
with a glass-like coat. The vessel is then cooled in a closed chamber 
and finally annealed. 

Enamelling Masses for Utensils and Sheet-iron.— Silica 30 to 
50 parts, flint 10 to 20, China clay 10 to 20, pipe clay 8 to 10, chalk 6 
to 10, porcelain ground to a fine powder 5 to 15, boric acid 20 to 40, 
saltpetre 6 to 10, gvpsum 2 to 6 ; or, quartz 30 to 50 parts, granite 20 to 
30, borax 10 to 20," glass 6 to 10, magnesia 10 to 15, feldspar 5 to 20, 
soda 10 to 20, lime 5 to 15, heavy spar 2 to 8, and fluorspar 3 to 10. 

The constituents are ground separately, then mixed, fused, again 
ground, and the glaze applied as thin as possible. The proportions in 
which the materials are to be mixed depend on the raw materials them- 
selves and have to be ascertained by determined experiments. A 
granite which, for instance, is richer in quartz than another variety re- 
quires a larger quantity of soda than a variety which contains much 
fluorspar. 

To Color Iron. — 1. By placing bright articles of iron in a mixture 
of a solution of 4 ozs. 15 drachms of sodium hyposulphite in 1 quart of 
water and one of 1 oz. 3 drachms of acetate of lead in 1 quart of water, 
and heating gradually to boiling, they acquire an appearance as if 
blued. 2. By bringing a mixture of 3 parts of sodium hyposulphite 
and 1 part of acetate of lead in a dissolved state upon bright iron sur- 
faces and heating, a layer of disulphide of iron is deposited, through 
which shows the metallic surface in various shades of color. 3. By dip- 
ping small articles of cast or wrought iron in melted sulphur, to which 
some soot has been added, a coating of ferric sulphide is formed which 
acquires a beautiful polish by rubbing. 

Coating for Cast-iron. — If cast-iron articles are not to be coated 
in the ordinary manner with paint, lacquer, etc., but are neverthe- 
less to show a nice appearance, they are first cleansed by washing 
with a dilute acid and after drying the surface is thoroughly smoothed 
with a file or wire brush. They are then thoroughly rubbed several 
times with ordinary crude petroleum, allowing one coat of the oil to 
dry thoroughly before applying the next. The articles are then 
brushed with a stiff hair-brush, whereby they acquire a dark lustrous 
appearance which even reniahis unchanged on exposure to heat and 



382 BRONZING, ETC., OF METALS. 

afford complete protection against rust. When once the basis for a 
lustrous appearance is laid in this manner, a simple rubbing over with 
petroleum and brushing suffices later on, the cast-iron articles acquiring 
thereby a more intense, dark lustre. 

Coloring- and Polishing- Brass. — In order to prevent the constant 
oxidizing of brass articles, agents have been for a long time experi- 
mented with, to protect the surfaces of these articles against the influ- 
ence of the atmosphere, and the following method has been proposed 
as the most suitable and practical one : 

If brass is left for some time in moist sand it assumes a very hand- 
some brown color which, if polished with a dry brush, remains constant 
and requires no cleaning or polishing. A darker or lighter green color 
may also be imparted if a thin layer of verdigris is created upon the 
surface by means of dilute acids, which are to be left on until dry. 
The antique appearance imparted to the brass in this manner is very 
handsome and more or less durable. But it is not always possible for 
want of time to do this with each article, and a more rapid method for 
effecting the end is therefore necessary and the simplest way to do is to 
cover the brass with a coating of varnish. 

All the necessary work is to be done before the bronzing, and the 
brass is annealed, dipped in old or dilute nitric acid until the scales 
can be loosened from the surface, which is then treated with sand-water 
and dried. The next step is to produce the desired bronze. Although 
this word actually signifies a brown color, being derived from the 
Italian word bromine, or in English "burned brown," it is rather 
loosely applied in the trades at present, and applied to all colors. 
Brown, of all shades, is produced by immersion in a solution of nitrate 
or chloride of iron, whereby the strength of the bath determines the 
depth of the color. Olive green, if the surface is blackened by means 
of a solution of iron and arsenic in muriatic acid ; it is then polished 
with a plumbago brush, and afterwards coated with a lacquer composed 
of 1 part varnish lacquer, 4 parts turmeric, and 1 part gamboge. A steel 
gray color is precipitated upon brass by means of a weak boiling solu- 
tion of arsenic chloride, and a blue by an attentive treatment with a 
strong sulphide of soda. Black is much used for optical instruments 
and is produced by painting with a platinum solution, or with chloride 
of gold mixed with nitrate of tin. The Japanese bronze their brass by 
boiling it in a solution of sulphate of copper, alum and verdigris. 

The success in the art of bronzing chiefly depends upon certain cir- 
cumstances: For instance, the temperature of the alloy or solution, the 
proportion and qualities of the materials used for alloying, the proper 
moment at which the article is to be withdrawn, and a hundred other 
minutiae of attention and manipulation require a skill only taught by 
experience. If the brass is to receive no artificial color, but simply to 
be protected against tarnishing and oxidizing, it is to be lacquered 
after having been thoroughly cleansed. In order to prepare the brass 
for this coating it must be dipped after having been annealed, and, as 
aforesaid, rinsed and washed for a moment in pure commercial nitric 
acid until covered with a white coating of the appearance of curdled 
milk, when the article is taken out, rinsed in clean water, and dried in 
sawdust. 

In the first case the brass becomes lustrous and in the latter mat, 
which is generally improved by smoothing and polishing in prominent- 
places. The article is then dipped for a moment in nitric acid as 



OF METALS. 383 

found in commerce, and containing a little crude cream of tartar in 
order to preserve the color up to the moment of lacquering, and finally 
dried in warm sawdust. When prepared in such a manner the article 
is taken in hand to be lacquered, for which purpose it is first to be heated 
upon a hot plate, to be lacquered afterwards. For this purpose is used 
a simple alcohol varnish consisting of 1 oz. of shellac dissolved in 1 
pint of alcohol. To this simple varnish are to be added the coloring 
substances, such as sanders wood, dragon's blood and annato, which 
increases the lustre of the color. In order to moderate the shading of 
color, turmeric, gamboge, saffron, cape aloes and gum sandarac are 
added. The first colors make the lacquer reddish, the second yellow- 
ish, while the two, when mixed, give a nice orange. 

A good pale lacquer consists of 3 parts aloes and 1 part turmeric to 1 
part of simple varnish. A gold lacquer is obtained by adding 4 parts 
dragon's blood and 1 part turmeric to L part of simple varnish, while 
a red lacquer is produced from 32 parts annato and 8 parts dragon's 
blood to 1 part of the varnish. Lacquers are subject to chemical 
change by the heat and light and must, therefore, be kept in a dark 
place. The vessels in which they are stored are generally of glass or 
clay, and the brushes with which they are applied must be camel hair 
and have no metallic parts about them. 

To Blue Small Sheet-Steel Articles. — Dip the articles into a 
fluid alloy of 25 parts lead and 1 tin, which melts at the degree of heat 
required for bluing. The dipping can also be done in a sand-bath 
heated to and kept at the temperature required (572° F. for dark blue, 
and 478° F. for pale blue). 

Red Stain for Copper Articles. — A brown color maybe produced 
upon copper articles by placing them in a bath composed of 1 part ver- 
digris and 16 parts water, and compounded with ammonia until a clear 
blue solution is formed. To this bath add further a mixture of 2 parts 
liver of sulphur, 3 parts spirit of sal-ammoniac, and 10 parts water, 
shaking the mixture thoroughly before use. To avoid the formation of 
spots and stains the articles must previously be thoroughly cleansed. 
By slight heating the color passes into reddish brown and becomes 
lighter. 

To Produce a Silver-white Coating" on Brass. — Dissolve 46 
parts cream of tartar and 4 tartar emetic in 1000 hot water, add 50 hydro- 
chloric acid, 125 powdered (or fine granulated) tin, and 30 powdered 
antimony (metal). Heat to boiling and dip into it the objects to be 
coated. After having been boiled half an hour the brass will have a 
silver-white, hard, and durable coating. 

For Coppering' Zinc Plates the following baths are recommended : 
To coat a zinc plate with a hard but very thin layer of copper, dip it 
into bath composed of 100 parts of saturated solution of cupric chloride 
(40 parts of cupric chloride and 60 of water), 150 parts of ammonia and 
3000 of water. For very solid coppering add to the bath saturated solu- 
tion of prussiate of potash until the blue color of the first mixture has 
quite disappeared. This mode of coppering is somewhat slower than 
by the galvanic process, but yields equally good results. For plates 
engraved with the chisel or the cold needle it is best to use a mixture 
of prussiate of copper with neutral potassium sulphate, to which another 
mixture of a saturated solution of sulphate of copper in water and water 



384 BRONZING, ETC., OF METALS. 

saturated with prussiate of potash is added. The bath is ready for use 
when the precipitate is completely dissolved and the fluid discolored. 
By adding to the above-mentioned reagents sulphate or chloride of zinc 
a good brass bath is obtained, which is allowed to act upon the zinc 
plate with the assistance of a single electrical element. Instead of using 
completely saturated baths one-quarter to one-third of their volume of 
ordinary water can be added in both cases. For hard coppering the 
second bath is the most suitable. 

Brush Coppering" for Iron and Steel. — This process can be rec- 
ommended for its simplicity and general applicability. The utensils 
required are two vessels of sufficient size, each provided with a brush 
preferably so wide that the entire surface of the article to be treated can 
be coated with one application. One of the vessels contains a strongly 
saturated solution of caustic soda and the other a strongly saturated 
solution of cupric sulphate (blue vitriol) of the best quality. 

For coppering, the well-cleansed article is first uniformly coated with 
a brush full of the caustic soda solution and then also uniformly with 
a brush full of the copper solution. A quite thick film of copper is 
immediately firmly deposited upon the article. Care must be had not 
to take the brush too full and not to touch the places, once gone over, 
the second time, as otherwise the layer of copper does not adhere firmly. 
The copperingthus produced is so strong and durable that, without fear 
of injury, the articles can afterwards be scratch-brushed, gilded, and 
silvered, and also colored brown or steel blue. 

For executing the coloration the following directions are given : For 
brown, dissolve 6.77 drachms of calcium monosulphide and 1 oz. 6 
drachms of powdered sal-ammoniac in 10 quarts of water. Small 
articles are dipped into this solution and large ones brushed over with it. 
After dipping the articles must be thoroughly scratch-brushed, as they 
show various colors when they come from the bath and acquire a uni- 
form tone only by scratch-brushing. 

For dark steel blue, dissolve 11.25 drachms to 1 oz. of potassium sul- 
phide and the same quantity of common salt in 10 quarts of water. The 
oath is used iu the same manner as for brown. 

Tinning- Copper without Heating.— Scrape a quantity of block 
tin into shavings, put them in a bottle and add a sufficient quantity of 
mercury to make an amalgam, which is to be shaken and then covered 
with muriatic acid. The acid will not dissolve the amalgam, but as- 
sists in the process of tinning. By taking a portion of the above mix- 
ture on a rag and rubbing it on the clean surface of the copper a beau- 
tiful but not very durable surface will be the result. When tinning 
brass with the mixture care is to be taken, as the mercury unites with 
the zinc, and is apt to destroy the metal. As the mixture contains 
mercury, which is very poisonous, it would not be safe to use it for 
tinning culinary articles. 

To Zinc Old and New Parts. — It frequently happens that zincked 
articles exposed to strong wear become damaged. To put such articles 
into good condition, i. e., to rezinc them, it is first absolutely necessary 
to subject them to a thorough cleansing. With iron articles the process 
is as follows: Prepare a pickle from 5.64 to 8.46 drachms of sulphuric 
acid and 1 quart of water and allow the articles to remain in this bath 
until the oxide is eaten off; then dip them, but only for a moment, in 



BBONZING, ETC., OF METALS. 385 

strong nitric acid and wash off quickly with much water. To large 
articles the pickle may be applied with a brush, thoroughly scrubbing 
afterward with sand. This scrubbing is also necessary when the coat- 
ing of zinc still adheres to single places or parts of the articles, since 
the zinc strongly oxidizes in this pickle. Articles of brass or copper 
are best cleansed with a pickle consisting of equal parts of sulphuric 
and nitric acids with a small addition of common salt. If the articles 
are strongly oxidized or oily it is best to previously pickle them- and 
also remove the oil by heating. The pickle for this purpose consists of 
1 part sulphuric a,cid in 8 to 10 water. The articles being thus thor- 
oughly cleaned, they may be rezincked in various ways. Iron is best 
zincked by dipping into a fluid zinc bath. The articles are first dipped 
in a concentrated solution of sal-ammoniac, then quickly dried and 
finally dipped into the melted zinc. If the articles are of large size 
they must not be too quickly removed from the bath, as otherwise the 
zinc adheres more firmly to places not yet sufficiently heated than to 
others. To prevent the* articles from cooling off too quickly they must, 
after being removed from the zinc bath, be placed in hot, preferably boil- 
ing water. Small articles are brought into the zinc bath in a net of strong 
iron wire, and have to be constantly shaken to insure all the places 
and all the articles being coated with zinc. Copper and brass may also 
be coated by chemical means, the process being as follows : The articles 
are dipped into a bath of chloride of zinc solution made boiling hot, 
and to which a few pieces of granulated zinc are added. By remain- 
ing a few minutes in contact with the zinc the articles become coated 
with a very bright, firmly-adhering layer of zinc. The articles may 
also be dipped in a solution of zinc dust in concentrated caustic soda 
lye. This bath must also be brought to the boiling point. 

Tinning" by Simple Immersion. — Argentine is a name given to 
tin precipitated by galvanic action from its solution. This material is 
usually obtained by immersing plates of zinc in a solution of tin con- 
taining about 93 grains of the metal to the quart. In this way the tin 
scrap can be utilized. To apply the argentine according to M. P. 
Marino's process, a bath is prepared from argentine and acid tartrate of 
potash rendered soluble by boric acid. Pyrophosphate of soda, chlo- 
ride of ammonium, or caustic soda may be substituted for the acid tar- 
trate. The bath being prepared, the objects to be coated are plunged 
therein, first having been suitably pickled and scoured, and theu may 
be subjected to*the action of an electric current. But a simple immer- 
sion is enough. The bath must be brought to ebullition, and objects of 
copper or brass, or such as are coated therewith, may be immersed in it. 

Electro -plating- -with Aluminium. — Dissolve 50 parts of potassa 
alum in 300 parts of water and to this add 10 parts of aluminic chlo- 
ride. Heat the liquid to 200° F. and after cooling add 39 parts of 
cyanide of potassium. The object to be plated must be absolutely 
freed from grease. It is suspended in the bath over the electro-positive 
electrode, the plate of metallic aluminium being suspended on the neg- 
ative pole. The electric current ought .to be weak. The plating when 
polished will be found equal to the best silver plating, having the 
advantage of not being oxidized or getting black from sulphurous 
vapors. 

Electro-plating with Bismuth. — For this purpose the solution of 
a double chloride of bismuth and ammonia is employed. The operation 



386 BRONZING, ETC., OF METALS. 

takes place in the cold way, the solution containing from 14 drachms 
to 1 oz. 3 drachms of the chloride per quart. The current is produced 
by a simple Bunsen element. The articles when taken from the bath 
are coated with a sort of dark scum through which shines the coat of 
bismuth. The coating adheres very firmly, its color being a medium 
between antimony and old silver. 

Electro -plating- with the Platinum Metals.— The following 
process has been recommended by Prof. Silvan us P. Thompson. The 
impure metal is first obtained as a chloride by the ordinary chemical 
processes. The excess of acid is evaporated off in a water bath, and 
the salt finally re-dissolved in distilled water and from 10 to 50 times its 
weight of a solution of sodium phosphate either pure or mixed with 
borax. The solution is then raised to the boiling point and sal-am- 
moniac, common salt, or sodium bromide added. The solution is then 
re-heated and finally neutralized with either the carbonate or, if 
alkaline, with the bicarbonate of soda. In depositing the metal from 
a bath of the above solution it should be heated to from 140° to 
194° F., and the metal deposited in the ordinary way. In the case of 
platinum a brilliant deposit can be obtained from a bath of the follow- 
ing composition : 

Chloride of platinum 2 parts. 

Sodium borate 16 " 

Sodium carbonate 16 " 

Sal-ammoniac 2 " 

Water 150 " 

Cheap Mode of Coating- Metals with Platinum. — Iron articles 
are first coated with a mixture of lead borate, cupric oxide and oil of 
turpentine and exposed to a temperature of from 482° to 642° F., 
whereby the coating melts and spreads uniformly upon the iron, pene- 
trating its pores. If a smooth surface (enamel-like appearance; is to be 
given to the objects a second coating of lead borate, plumbic oxide and 
oil of lavender is applied in the same manner. Upon these coatings a 
uniform, thin layer of platinum can be readily precipitated by apply- 
ing by means of a brush (or for smaller articles by dipping) a solution 
of dry platinum chloride in ether and volatile oils and evaporating the 
fluid at a temperature not exceeding 392° F. Finely divided platinum 
is thus separated which adheres firmly to the surface. If the objects 
were only provided with the first coating the precipitated platinum has 
a dull color. Such treatment suffices if the coating is only to serve the 
purpose of protecting the articles from wear and destruction. For 
decorative effects it is, however, recommended to provide the articles 
with both the coatings above mentioned. On account of its general 
applicability and cheapness and the great power of resistance of the 
coating, this method can be especially recommended for plating articles 
with platinum on a large scale. 

To Unite Nickel, etc., with Platinum. — According to an English 
patent plates or sheets of nickel or its alloys and of platinum or silver 
or their alloys are united with each other by placing the thoroughly 
cleansed surfaces upon each other and subjecting them to the action of 
heat and pressure. To prevent the access of air the pieces to be united 
are enclosed in an envelope of sheet iron, sheet copper or other metallic 
sheet, the adhering of the envelope to the pieces to be joined being 



BRONZING, ETC., OF METALS 387 

prevented by an intermediate layer of magnesia or lime. Nickel wire 
may be coated with platinum by wrapping platinum sheet around a 
nickel core and treating in the manner above stated. 

Nickel-plating-. — Conditions for the Production of a Beautiful 
and Durable Coating-. — 1. Purity of the nickel salts and nickel 
anodes used; the latter especially are frequently the cause of poor 
nickelling. They should be free from copper, while a content of iron 
is not injurious. 2. The anode surface must not be smaller than the me- 
tallic surface to be nickelled. 3. The nickel-bath must not be too con- 
centrated ; a solution of 1 part nickel salt — best the double sulphate 
and ammonium — in 18 to 20 parts of distilled water can be especially 
recommended. The water gradually evaporating must be constantly 
replaced, and further, the temperature of the bath must not fall below 
that of an ordinary living room. 4. The bath must not lose its neutral 
reaction ; if acid reaction appears add drop by drop dilute solution of 
ammonia until neutral reaction reappears. 5. For articles of copper 
and its alloys special baths have to be prepared, to which for every pound 
of nickel salt 2.82 drachms of sal-ammoniac must be added. 6. A 
strong current is required for the production of a light-colored and 
durable nickelling. The separate operations are executed in succession 
as follows : 1. Mechanical cleansing of the articles by means of a scratch- 
brush in case much rust, verdigris, or dirt has to be removed. 2. Treat- 
ment with a boiling solution of potash — 1 part potash to 10 or 12 water. 
3. Rinsing the articles with boiling water. 4. Articles of iron or steel 
are placed in dilute sulphuric acid, while brass articles are pickled in 
the usual manner. 5. Careful washing with cold water. 6. The 
articles thus cleansed are put into the nickel-bath where they remain a 
shorter or longer time according to the degree of nickelling desired. 7. 
The nickelled articles are dried in saw-dust. 8. The articles are 
polished, if desired, upon a felt-disk with the assistance of Vienna chalk 
or polishing rouge. 

The cleansing operations must be executed with special care, and 
from operation 1 to 7 the articles must not be touched with the hands, 
as otherwise they will show defective places. 

Electro -plating with Nickel. — The following solution for electro- 
plating with nickel is used by several firms in Hainault : 17.63 ozs. of 
nickel sulphate, 12 ozs. 14 drachms of neutral ammonium tartrate, 1.41 
drachms of tannin dissolved in ether, and 2| gallons of water. li quarts 
of water is first added and the mixture boiled for 15 minutes ; the re- 
mainder of the water is then added and the whole filtered. The solu- 
tion yields an even white deposit, which is not brittle, and the cost of 
which is hardly more than electro-plating with copper. 

A new Nickel Bath is composed of 35 ozs. 4.38 drachms of pure 
nickel sulphate, 26 ozs. 7.28 drachms of neutral ammonium tartrate, 
2.82 drachms of tannin, and 5£ gallons of water. The neutral ammo- 
nium tartrate is obtained by saturating a solution of tartaric acid with 
ammonia. The nickel salt must be absolutely neutral. For this pur- 
pose dissolve all in 3 to 4 quarts of water and let it boil for about 
one-quarter hour; then add sufficient water to bring the fluid up to h\ 
gallons and filter. By retaining the above-mentioned proportions of 
the ingredients the bath never undergoes a change. The precipitate 
obtained is very white, soft, and uniform, and even with a thick deposit 
the surface shows no roughness, nor does it come off provided the article 



388 BRONZING, ETC., OF METALS. 

had been thoroughly cleaned. Very thick precipitates can be produced 
upon crude or polished castings at a cost but little exceeding that of 
coppering. 

Nickelling of Tin-lead Alloys. — To solidly nickel articles of tin- 
lead alloys without previous coppering or brassing, an especially good 
nickel bath is required. The two following baths can be recommended 
for the purpose : Bath A : Dissolve 7 ozs. of ammonio-sulphide of 
nickel in 10 quarts of hot distilled water, then add gradually 14 ozs. of 
nickel carbonate and allow the mixture to boil half an hour. After 
allowing the mixture to cool to 104° F. neutralize it by the addition of 
cold solution of citric acid. In nickelling articles of tin-lead alloys the 
bath must be constantly kept neutral; in case it becomes acid add 
nickel carbonate ; if it is alkaline neutralize it with liquid citric acid. 
(Acetic acid answers as well and is much cheaper.) 

Bath B : Dissolve gradually in 10 quarts of hot distilled water 28 
ozs. 12 drachms of ammonia-sulphide of nickel, 5 ozs. 4 drachms of 
sodium sulphate, and 3 ozs. 8 drachms of ammonium chloride, and al- 
low this bath to boil 15 minutes. Both baths are to be used only when 
cold. In both baths, each of 50 quarts, the work is executed with a cur- 
rent of three Bunsen elements No. 3, rolled nickel anodes being used. 
The deposit of nickel in bath A is very hard and takes a high polish, 
and for this reason the articles must not be allowed to remain too long 
in the bath, say 15 to 30 minutes, according to the number of articles. 
The deposit in bath B being less hard, the articles must remain longer 
in it, and having a duller appearance when taken from the bath re- 
quire a more careful ^fter-polishing. When using bath B care must 
be had that the surfaces to be nickelled are always suspended opposite 
the anode. Bath A can be especially recommended for nickelling on a 
large scale articles of an alloy of tin and refined lead, though it is 
somewhat more expensive than bath B. In pickling polished articles 
wadding is used, but rough places must be cleansed with hot soda lye 
and the use of a goat-hair brush. Before bringing the articles into the 
nickel-bath they must be thoroughly rinsed in clean water. The slight 
film formed upon the articles by pickling exerts no influence upon the 
nickelling. From bath A the articles come with a beautiful lustre, and 
they can be polished with ease. In polishing nickelled articles care 
must be had not to allow them to become too hot as otherwise the 
nickelling becomes full of cracks. 

Nickelling- of Polished Articles of Iron and Steel. — The method 
of coating metallic articles with a thin layer of nickel without the use 
of a galvanic battery consists in placing the article to be nickelled in a 
solution of chloride of zinc and nickel salt. As in this method, where 
the metal comes in contact with zinc, stains may be readily produced, 
which afterwards would have to be removed by polishing, a special 
process is used. Bring into a dilute (5 to 10 per cent.) solution of pure 
chloride of zinc sufficient nickel sulphate to give the fluid an intense 
green color and then heat to the boiling point, best in a porcelain vessel. 
Without paying attention to a possible clouding of the fluid by the 
separation of a basic nickel salt, place the articles previously thoroughly 
freed from fatty substances, etc., in the bath in such a manner that 
they do not touch each other, or at least only in a few places. Keep 
the bath boiling from 30 to 60 minutes, constantly replacing the water 
lost by evaporation. During this time the nickel precipitaes in the 



?C, OF METALS. 389 

form of a bright lustrous layer wherever the article is free from fat or 
oxide. When the article is uniformly nickelled it is taken out, 
washed in water containing some chalk, and then carefully dried. This 
layer of nickel bears polishing with chalk, and can be recommended 
for purposes where a firmly adhering but thin coating is desired. The 
chloride of zinc used must not contain any metal precipitable by iron. 
Where a good commercial article cannot be had, it is best prepared by 
dissolving zinc waste in hydrochloric acid and allowing the solution to 
stand with an excess of zinc for separation of the metals precipitable 
by zinc. After 24 hours the solution is filtered and is then ready for 
use, it containing for every part of dissolved metallic zinc 2.1 parts of 
chloride of zinc. The nickel sulphate used should also be as pure as 
possible, and the solution, when brought in contact in the cold with 
bright iron, should not separate a metal, for instance copper, precipi- 
table by iron. Furthermore, during the operation, when in conse- 
quence of the formation of a layer of nickel the fluid has acquired 
a less intense green color, fresh nickel salt must be added until toe 
intensity of the green color is restored. On standing in the air the 
fluid used for nickelling separates, in consequence of the absorbed iron, 
ferric hydrate, from which it can be freed by filtering. After the ad- 
dition of some solution of chloride of zinc and nickel sulphate it can 
be again used for nickelling. With the use of cobalt sulphate lustrous 
metallic cobalt can in the same manner be deposited upon polished 
articles of steel and iron. 

To Coat Zinc with Nickel. — For the production of a coating of 
nickel upon zinc the following solutionis recommended as giving good 
results: The solution is composed of 10 ozs. of the double carbonate of 
nickel and ammonia, 4 ozs. of ammonium chloride, and 2 ozs. of potas- 
sium chloride in a gallon of distilled water. The salts are dissolved 
in hot water and the bath is used at an ordinary temperature, say 
62° F. The zinc must be thoroughly cleansed, rinsed in clear cold 
water, and brought as quickly as possible into the bath. In using the 
current, which should have a strength of 17 amperes per square foot of 
surface, great care must be had that the zinc is inserted before it touches 
the solution. 

To Imitate Nickel Plating-. — A sort of light nickel plating is ob- 
tained by heating to the boiling point a bath of pure granulated tin, 
crude tartar and water, and adding a little oxide of nickel heated to a 
red heat. A brass or copper article immersed in the solution is almost 
immediately coated with nearly pure nickel. By then adding some 
carbonate or tartrate of cobalt a bluish coloration is obtained, the 
depth of which depends on the quantity of the cobalt used. While 
this method cannot be advantageously used for plating large quanti- 
ties, it may be profitably used for working on a small scale. 

Cold Silver Plating-. — Freshly deposited chloride of silver, well 
washed with hot water, is mixed in equal proportions of table salt and 
cream of tartar, until it becomes a paste, if necessary, with additions of 
water. The article to be silvered is first cleansed with a good stiff 
brush and a solution of soda and soap and thoroughly rinsed to remove 
any dirt, and again rinsed with hot water. It is to be recommended to 
submit it to a dry cleaning with pulverized and washed chalk, pumice 
stone powder, or quartz powder. When well rinsed with cold water, 



390 CELLULOID, RUBBER, ETC. 

make a ball of loose cotton wrapped in soft muslin, and with this coat 
the wet article with a thin layer of salt; then rub some of the silver- 
ing paste on to it until the whole article under treatment is well sil- 
ver-coated. When sufficiently coated, quickly rub with a little ball 
some cream of tartar upon the silvering, and wash. The silver deposit 
will be found handsome, clean and white as snow. 

Silvering" -without a Battery. — Silvering by contact is not so 
durable as by battery, although the color is the same. The solution is 
prepared as follows : Take 1 part chloride of silver, 6 prussiate of pot- 
ash, 4 purified potash, 2 salt, 4 caustic ammonia and 4£ rain water. 
First prepare the chloride of silver, next dissolve the prussiate of 
potash in water, and add then the potash, salt and ammonia, and 
boil the whole for £ an hour in a porcelain vessel ; filter and the fluid 
is ready for silvering. The utmost cleanliness is a primary condition 
by this method. Heat the fluid up to boiling, then introduce the arti- 
cle, together with a piece of clean zinc. Take it out after a few min- 
utes and brush it with cream of tartar, and put it back again in the 
solution, in which leave it for 3 or 4 minutes. Then brush again, and 
continue this until it is sufficiently silvered. This silvering will bear 
polishing with the steel, and takes a nice lustre. Articles silvered by 
this method cannot be distinguished from silver articles. It is very 
good to protect galvanic casts against dimming. But when silvering 
no more of the fluid must be taken than will be used. 

Silvering" Iron. — A manufacturer in Vienna employs the following 
process for silvering iron : He first covers the iron with mercury, and 
silvers by the galvanic process. By heating to 572° F. the mercury 
evaporates, and the silver layer is fixed. Ironware is first heated with 
diluted hydrochloric acid, and then dipped into a solution of nitrate 
of mercury, being at the same time in communication with the zinc 
pole of an electric battery, a piece of gas carbon or platinum being 
used as an anode for the other pole. The metal is soon covered with 
a layer of quicksilver, and is then taken out and well washed and sil- 
vered in a silver solution. To save silver, the wire can first be covered 
with a layer of tin; 1 part of cream of tartar is dissolved in 8 parts 
of boiling water, and one or more tin anodes are joined with the carbon 
pole of a Bunsen element. The zinc pole communicates with a well- 
cleaned piece of copper, and the battery is made to act until enough 
tin has deposited on the copper, when this is taken out and the iron 
ware put in its place. The wire thus covered with tin, chemically 
pure and silvered, is much cheaper than any other silvered metals. 

Powder for Silvering. — To 16 parts melted tin add an equal quan- 
tify of mercury; rub it well together and mix with it 125 parts of pre- 
pared hartshorn. Any metal rubbed with this will take the appear- 
ance of silver. 

CELLULOID, RUBBER, ETC. 

How Celluloid, is Made. — The following is a description of the 
process carried out in a factory near Paris for the production of cel- 
luloid: 

A roll of paper is slowly unwound, and at the same time is saturated 



etc. syi 

with a mixture of 5 parts of sulphuric acid and 2 parts of nitric acid, 
which falls upon the paper in a fine spray. This changes the cellulose 
of the paper into pyroxylin (gun cotton). The excess of the acid hav- 
ing been expelled by pressure, the paper is washed with plenty of 
A\ater until all traces of acid have been removed. It is then reduced 
to a pulp, and passes on to the bleaching trough. Most of the water 
having been got rid of by means of a strainer, the pulp is mixed with 
from 20 to 40 per cent, of its weight of camphor, and the mixture thor- 
oughly triturated under millstones. The necessary coloring having 
been added in the form of a powder, a second mixing and grinding 
follows. 

The finely divided pulp is then spread out in thin layers on slabs, 
and from 20 to 25 of these layers are plaoed in a hydraulic press, sepa- 
rated from one another by some sheets of thick blotting paper, and are 
subjected to a pressure of 150 atmospheres until all traces of moisture 
have been got rid of. The matter is then passed between rollers 
heated to between 140° and 150° F., when it issues in the form of 
elastic sheets. 

Preparation of Celluloid Burning- with Difficulty. — The in- 
flammability of celluloid, which has often caused accidents, is pre- 
vented or reduced by the addition of protochloride of tin in mixing the 
celluloid mass. Mix 100 parts of nitrated paper or nitrated cotton 
with 40 parts of camphor and 70 of protochloride of tin, moisten the 
mixture with 100 parts of alcohol, and after 12 hours knead it with 
rolls heated to 140° F. until the mass is thoroughly homogeneous. 
This mass is said to burn only when brought in direct contact with a 
flame, and immediately extinguishes, without after-smoldering, when 
removed from the flame. 

Printing* upon Celluloid. — To prevent the running of the colors 
in printing upon celluloid, the coloring substances are dissolved in 
acetic ether, acetic acid or vinegar essence, which strongly attacks the 
surface of the celluloid so that the colors immediately penetrate and 
dry. With some varieties of celluloid this remedy may, however, not 
prove sufficient. In this case moisten the surface of the celluloid with 
oil of turpentine or melted turpentine wax. 

Mass for Trunk-frames, etc. — Cork meal is intimately mixed 
with dry curd and lime. The mixture is moistened with water, placed 
between layers of tissue, and after being intimately connected with the 
fibres of the tissue by pressure, dried. The plates thus obtained have 
been patented in Germany under the name of " Suberit-plates." They 
show considerable solidity and hardness, without being brittle; are 
very light and can be cut and joined like wood. 

To Repair Torn Rubber Belts and Hose. — Fill the previously 
cleansed breaks with a solution composed of : Gutta-percha, 20 parts; 
caoutchouc, 40; isinglass, 10; bisulphide of carbon, 160. Very large 
breaks are covered layerwise with the solution, and after drawing the 
break together with twine allowed to dry one or two days. The twine 
is then cut and the cement projecting above the edges removed by 
means of a sharp knife previously dipped in water. 

To Connect Pieces of Rubber. — Dissolve gutta-percha 1 part, 



392 CELLULOID, RUBBER, ETC. 

caoutchouc 2 pr.rts in bisulphide of carbon 8 parts. Coat the pieces of 
rubber with the solution, dry, heat the layers to melting and press the 
parts to be connected together. 

To Make Articles of Rubber Odorless. — Cover both sides of the 
article with a thin layer of animal charcoal and heat it together with 
the animal charcoal to from 122° to 140° F. for 3 to 4 hours. 

Manufacture of Rubber Type.— The matter or letters to be re- 
produced are first set up in clean-cut metal type, which is then thor- 
oughly oiled. A rim or guard about half an inch high should then be 
placed around the form and with a camel's-hair brush a thin cream of 
plaster of paris is laid over it, to exclude all air bubbles. A thicker 
paste of plaster is then poured over the form, filling in the guard or 
the rim up to its edge, and it is then set aside to harden. Alum 
water is often used to mix the plaster, as this makes a harder mold, but 
it takes somewhat longer to set. When the mold has thoroughly stiff- 
ened, it is removed from the type and placed in a dry, hot place to 
become well hardened. The mold is now fitted in a frame of suitable 
size, and a sheet of vulcanized rubber about k inch in thickness is ad- 
justed upon it, and the whole is put into a screw-clamp and heated 
slowly until the rubber becomes soft enough to be forced into the letter 
spaces of the mold by tightening the screw. The rubber should be 
allowed to remain in the press at least 24 hours, and until it becomes 
quite cold. The sheet rubber used for this purpose is usually but 
slightly vulcanized, having had about 3 per cent, of sulphur kneaded 
into it with rollers while subjected to a very high temperature. After 
the impression has been made, therefore, it is necessary to add a greater 
proportion of sulphur, to insure the required hardness in the type. 
This is done by immersing the rubber, which has been separated from 
the mold, in a mixture of 30 parts of bisulphide of carbon and 1 part 
of chloride of sulphur. This is exposed to a temperature of from 70° 
to 80° F. until all the bisulphide of carbon has volatilized, and is then 
immersed in a boiling alkaline solution— made by dissolving 9 ozs. of 
caustic potash in 1 gallon of water — for a few minutes, and after a sub- 
sequent washing in clear, tepid water, is made quite ready for use. 



r. 



Rubber Stamp Ink. — The usual rubber stamp inks are prepared 
with water, soluble aniline colors and glycerine. A good formula is 
given by Dieterich. Aniline blue, soluble in water, 1 B, 3 parts, dis- 
tilled water 10 parts, pyroligneous acid 10 parts, alcohol 10 parts, gly- 
cerine 70 parts. Mix intimately by trituration in a mortar. (The 
blue should be well rubbed down with the water and the glycerine 
gradually added. When a solution is effected, the other ingredients are 
by degrees added.) Other colors are produced by substituting for the 
blue any one of the following: Methyl violet 3 B, 3 parts; diamond 
fuchsin I, 2 parts ; methyl green, yellowish, 4 parts ; Vesuvin B (brown), 
5 parts; Nigrosin W (blue-black), 4 parts. , If a bright-red ink is re- 
quired, 3 parts of eosin B B N are used, but the pyroligneous acid 
must be omitted as this would destroy the eosin. Other aniline colors, 
when used for stamping ink, require to be acidulated. 



CEMENTS, MORTARS, ETC. 393 

CEMENTS, MORTARS, MUCILAGE, 
PASTE, PLASTER OP PARIS. 

A Good Cement for Various Purposes. — Procure a lot of 
paint, old paint, if possible, from a dealer, the skins forming on top 
of the paint, settlings from the bottom of paint pots, and, in fact, any- 
refuse which contains oil, zinc, or other mineral body may be used for 
the purpose. 

Reduce this mass, espeeially if hardened from continued standing 
exposed to the air, to the consistency of cream by soaking in some 
cheap oil. Heating may be resorted to if the hard paints cannot 
otherwise be softened. 

When the whole has become soft enough to be stirred into a homo- 
geneous mass, more oil may be added and the whole worked through a 
sieve and then run through an ordinal paint mill. 

A quantity of common whiting is next to be worked into the oil and 
paint, much in the way as when ordinary putty is to be made. The 
thickness of this putty, as we may now call it, should not be as dense 
as when used for glazing. 

When the whiting has been thoroughly mixed in and the mass well 
worked over, add a quantity of good Portland cement, sufficient to 
bring the putty to consistency which will allow of it being handled 
readily. 

When in this state the putty may be worked into cracks in brick or 
stone work much as ordinary putty is used when allowed to set and 
harden, and it will become nearly as hard as iron, impervious to 
moisture and any reasonable degree of heat. 

Roofing- Cement. — Mix ordinary red oxide of iron and boiled lin- 
seed oil so as to form a paint, add to every quart 1 gill of Japan dryer 
and then add equal parts of Roman water lime and Venetian red until 
the mixture is as thick as desired for the work to be done. This 
cement will be found very useful for flashings or for repairing leaky 
roofs, as it dries quickly and can be applied by means of a small brush 
to leaks on a standing seam roof where it would be impossible to 
solder. It is also useful for repairing cracked seams where the tin has 
become too rusty to be soldered. 

Cement for Repairing- Stone Structures. — The repairs of some 
of the most important stone structures in Paris have been carried out 
with a cement by Prof. Brune. This is made from 2 parts by weight 
of oxide of zinc, 2 of crushed limestone, and 1 of crushed grit mixed 
and ground together into a powder. To this is added a liquid con- 
sisting of a saturated solution of zinc chloride, to which is added an 
amount of ammonium chloride equal to £ the weight of the zinc con- 
tained in the chloride of zinc. The liquid is then diluted with § its 
bulk of water, and 1 lb. of the powder is mixed with 2£ pints of the 
above liquid. 

Cement for Bisque. — Burn some oyster shells, reduce to a powder 

in a muller and pass through a fine sieve. Make this into a paste with 

white of egg. The shells should be thoroughly cleaned, well-burned, 

air-slaked and finelv powdered, making simply a fine article of lime. 

27 



394 CEMENTS, MORTARS, ETC. 

The parts joined must be held firmly together for two minutes or so after 
the cement has been applied. Be sure the parts are thoroughly clean 
before joining. 

Very Adhesive Cement. — A cement particularly useful for fasten- 
ing the brass mountings on glass lamps, as it is unaffected by petroleum, 
is prepared by boiling 3 parts of resin with 1 part of caustic soda and 
5 parts of water, thus making a kind of soap, which is mixed with one- 
half its weight of plaster of paris. Zinc white, white lead or precipitated 
chalk may be used instead of the plaster, but when they are used the 
cement will be longer in hardening. 

To Fasten Leather to Cast-Iron. — Spread over the metal a thin, 
hot solution of good glue; soak the leather with a warm solution of 
gall nuts before placing on the metal, and leave to dry. under an 
equally distributed pressure. It is claimed that when fastened in this 
manner it is impossible to separate the leather from the metal without 
tearing it. 

Cement from Chloride of Zinc. — Mix 1 part of very fine glass 
powder with 3 parts of strongly glowed zinc oxide and keep the mixture 
iu a bottle. On the other hand, dissolve 1 part of borax in as little 
water as possible, mix the solution with one of chloride of zinc of 1.5 
or 1.6 specific gravity, and keep this solution also in a bottle. 

For use mix 1 part of the powder with sufficient of the solution to 
form a paste which in a short time becomes solid and hard as marble. 
This cement is much used for filling hollow teeth, but is also well 
adapted for numerous other purposes, such as making air-tight and 
water-proof connections on apparatus, etc. 

Cement to Fasten Porcelain Letters. — Mix 80 parts of starch 
and 100 of pulverized chalk with equal parts of water and alcohol, to- 
gether with the addition of 30 parts of Venetian turpentine. Care 
must be had to agitate the mass with a stick so as to insure its homo- 
geneity. 

Flexible Cement is made by melting together equal parts gutta- 
percha and white pine pitch. This cement softens on the water-bath 
and is not deteriorated by remelting. \ 

N 

Cement for Mending- Valuable Glassware.— Mix 5 parts of 
gelatine with 1 part of a solution of acid chromate of lime. Cover the 
broken edges with the cement, press the parts together and expose to 
sunlight. The light hardens the cement, which will then withstand 
boiling water. 

Cement for Glass and Brass.— Brass letters may be securely 
fastened on glass panes with a cement composed of, litharge 2 parts, 
white lead 1, boiled linseed oil 3, gum copal 1. Mix just before using. 
It forms a quickly drying and secure cement. 

Cement for Rendering- Water-tight the Joints of Wooden 
Casks, Cisterns, etc. — Melt 1 lb. of glue with the least quantity of 
water and then mix it with 1 lb. black resin and 4 ozs. of red ochre. 
This composition will dry in 48 hours after being applied and will not 



395 

only be found useful for these purposes, but may be advantageously 
employed to fix stones in frames. 

Cement for Filling- out Holes, Joints and Cracks in Win- 
dow-frames. — In making window-frames small imperfections due to 
the constitution of the wood, such as knot-holes, cracks, etc., are fre- 
quently observed which cannot be readily lepaired with wood, but must 
be filled up as otherwise they would mar the appearance of the finished 
work. A cement especially suitable for this purpose and also for fill- 
ing up such imperfections in window-frames already in use is prepared 
as follows : 

Glow strongly in an iron crucible ochre as finely elutriated as pos- 
sible. When the crucible is cool take the ochre out and rub it to a 
uniform powder, which is used as follows : In a sufficiently large iron 
crucible melt 1 lb. of colophony, and, when liquid, stir into it 1 lb. of 
thick turpentine. "When a clear fluid is formed mix with it 2 lbs. of 
the above-mentioned burnt ochre. Keep the mixture warm in the 
crucible and fill up with it the imperfections in the wood; care should 
be had to previously dry the wood as much as possible in a suitable 
manner. The mass becomes hard as stone; an excess can be readily 
removed with a chisel and again used. 

Cement for Repairing- Defective Zinc Ornaments. — By inti- 
mately stirring together to a thick plastic mass a solution of soda 
water-glass of 33° B. with fine whiting and adding zinc dust (zinc 
gray), a gray mass is obtained which hardens in 6 to 8 hours, and 
becomes extraordinarily solid. By polishing it, after hardening, with 
an agate it acquires the lustrous* white color of metallic zinc. It is 
especially suitable for repairing zinc ornaments and vessels, but it also 
adheres firmly to stone and wood as well as to metals and glass. 

New Cement for Bake-ovens. — To cement holes in bake-ovens 
the following cheap and durable mass is recommended : Dust of fire- 
bricks, glass pots or seggars, 2 lbs. ; fac clay, 2 lbs. ; pulverized pitch. 
£ lb., and common salt, i lb. Dissolve the whole in hot water and 
work thoroughly together to a thin paste. Before pouring it into the 
holes cool the latter off with water. 

Metal Cement. — For the restoration of the colonnades of the 
Louvre, Brune used the following cement consisting of a powder and a 
fluid: Oxide of zinc, 2 parts; comminuted hard limestone, 2 parts, 
and fine sand, 1 part, are mixed and eventually colored with ochre. 
The fluid consists of a solution of zinc in hydrochloric acid (impure) 
to which is added J of the dissolved zinc of sal-ammonia. For use 
1 lb. of the powder is mixed with 2i pints of the fluid. The mixture 
congeals rapidly to a solid mass. 

Cement for Filling Brass and Zinc Signs. — Mix asphalt, shellac 
and lampblack in about equal proportions, or black sealing-wax may 
be used. Apply by heating the plate and melting the cement in and 
evening the surfaces with a warm iron. Then carefully scrape off the 
excess and hold a hot iron over the letters to glaze the surface. 

To Reunite Broken Belting. — Broken belting can be reunited by 
the use of chrome ^lue. With a lap of 4 or 5 inches the reunited part 
is apparently as firm as any part of the band, though it is well to take 



396 CEMENTS, MORTARS, ETC. 

the precaution to tack down the ends of the lapped pieces with a few 
stitches of stout thread. The chrome glue is prepared as follows : Take 
100 parts of glue and soak it 12 hours in water; then pour off the sur- 
plus water, melt the glue, add 2 per cent, of glycerine and 3 per cent, of 
red chromate of potash, melting them with the glue. This mixture, 
thinned by warming, is applied to the lapped ends after having been 
roughened with a rasp and then placed between two hard wood strips 
in a vice and well pressed. They should be left 24 hours in the vice to 
become thoroughly dried. 

Stratena. — This well-known cement is said to be prepared as fol- 
lows : On the one hand 12 parts of white glue are dissolved in 16 
parts of acetic acid, and, on the other, 2 parts of French gelatine in 
15 parts of water. The solutions are mixed, compounded with 2 parts 
of shellac varnish and brought into small bottles. 

Glue for Damp Places. — Take of the best and strongest glue 
enough to make a pint when melted. Soak this until soft. Pour off 
the water as in ordinary glue making and add a little water if the glue 
is likely to be too thick. When melted, add 3 tablespoonfuls of boiled 
linseed oil. Stir frequently and keep up the heat until the oil disap- 
pears, which may take the whole day and perhaps more. If necessary 
add water to make up for that lost by evaporation. When no more oil 
is seen, a tablespoonful of whiting is added and thoroughly incorporated 
with the glue. 

Moisture -Resisting" Glue. — A glue which is proof against mois- 
ture may be made by dissolving 16 ozs. of glue in 3 pints of skim milk. 
If a stronger glue is wanted, add powdered lime. 

Roman Mortar. — The famous Roman mortar, which has stood the 
test of use better than any other known to man, was, according to 
DAvigdor, prepared with great care, and composed as follows: One 
part slaked (rich) lime ; 1 part brickdust (known in India as Toorkec, 
and used there for the same purpose) and 2 parts clear river sand. If 
quarry or pit sand was to be had (which they preferred) 3 parts of the 
latter were substituted. The care used in storing the sand, lime and 
brickdust far exceeded the precautions now taken by the most strict 
of engineers. They excavated immense pits, lined them with masonry 
and erected a roof, or even a vault over them. Here the sand after 
being screened was secured from the weather. The lime was specified 
to be slaked a year before using. It was spread out in large sheds, and 
the slaking was carried on by the influence of the air, almost without 
any admixture of water. When hydraulic mortar was required, the 
Romans substituted puzzolana for the brickdust. This was carefully 
screened and kept dry ; in short, the mortar makers of ancient Rome, 
who never did anything all their lives but mix mortar, went through 
their work with such care and accuracy that we should now require a 
chemical laboratory to do as well. 



, 



Making- Mortar. — Mortar made in the following manner will stand 
if used in almost any sort of weather. One bushel of unslaked lime, 
3 bushels of sharp sand ; mix 1 lb. of alum with 1 pint of linseed oil, 
and thoroughly mix this with the mortar when making it and use hot. 
The alum will counteract the action of frost on the mortar. 



CEMENTS, MORTARS, ETC. 397 

French Concrete. — A kind of concrete, hard and solid, is now- 
being used for building purposes in Paris. It is composed of sand and 
gravel, 8 parts: common earth burnt and powdered, 1 part; burnt 
cinders, 1 part, and unslaked hydraulic lime, 1% parts. These materials 
are thoroughly beaten up together, their mixture giving a concrete 
which sets almost immediately, and in a few days becomes extremely 
hard and solid. 

To Change Quick-setting- Cement into Slow-setting-. — Mix 
the cement with £ to 2 percent, of a hygroscopic salt (calcium chloride, 
magnesium chloride, or a mixture of salts which contains these sub- 
stances as essential constituents) and then grind the whole. 



' 



Plastering Outside Brick-walls. — Slaked lime, 60 parts; sand, 
35; litharge, 3. Knead and work the ingredients into a stiff ruass 
with 7 to 10 parts of linseed oil ; use old oil or linseed oil varnish. It 
should be well worked to the consistency required and applied as other 
mortars, well troweled down. Or, sand, 90 parts ; litharge, 5; plaster 
of Paris, 5, moistened and worked together with a small proportion of 
linseed oil. Oil the brick three coats before applying the mortar and 
trowel down. 

Mucilage for Attaching Labels to Tin. — Among others, the 
following methods have been suggested for this purpose : The addition 
of about 3 or 4 per cent, aluminium sulphate (not alum), or better still, 
about 10 per cent, of butter of antimony, is said to greatly improve the 
adhesiveness of mucilage. Others have suggested roughening the sur- 
face with acids or adding substances to the mucilage which yield acids 
in small degree on applying to the tin ; thus, honey, flour, treacle, etc., 
have come into use as seen in formula No. 1. 

1. Make gum tragacanth into mucilage of the desired consistency 
with hot water and then add to it 10 per cent, of flour. 

2. Boil 2 lbs. of flour with 1 quart of water to make a stiff paste ; 
add 2 ozs. of tartaric acid and 1 pint of molasses. Boil together until 
stiff and add 10 drops of carbolic acid. 

3. Shellac, 2 parts ; borax, 1 part ; water, 16 parts, are boiled to- 
gether until the shellac dissolves. 

4. Add 1 oz. of dammar varnish to 4 ozs. of tragacanth paste. 

5. Roughen the surface with emery paper, then apply the label pre- 
ferably with water-glass as an adhesive agent. 

6. Balsam of fir, I part ; turpentine, 3 parts. Dissolve. This is 
only applicable with good qualities of well-sized labels. 

7. Clean the surface by rubbing with solution of caustic potash, and 
then thoroughly wipe before applying the label. This is employed on 
the principle of attributing the difficulty to the presence of a thin film 
of grease, as is also the case with the addition of water of ammonia to 
the paste. 

8. Brush the surface over with a thin streak of butter of antimony 
or with oleate of mercury, clean well and apply the label. 

9. Brush over with strong tannin solution, allow to dry and apply 
the label, previously well gummed. 

10. Add Venice turpentine to good starch paste. 

11. Soften glue with water and then dissolve it in acetic acid to 10 
per cent, strength. 



, 



398 CEMENTS, MOETAES, ETC. 

12. About 15 per cent, of glycerine added to the paste is said to work 
admirably. 

Elastic Mucilage. — Dissolve 1 part of salicylic acid in 20 parts of 
alcohol, add 3 parts of soft soap and 3 parts of glycerine. Shake 
thoroughly and add the mixture to a mucilage prepared from 93 parts 
of gum arabic and the requisite amount of water (about 180 parts). 
This mucilage keeps well, and, when it dries, remains elastic without 
tendency to cracking. 

Preparation of Dextrin Solution for Gumming. — Pour £ pint 
of cold water over 2 lbs. of dextrin and stir the mass vigorously for 
about 10 minutes. The dextrin being thoroughly saturated with water 
place it in a vessel over the fire, and allow it to remain with constant 
stirring for about 5 minutes until the mass is reduced to a milky sub- 
stance. This condition takes place when small bubbles appear on the 
surface as if the solution would begin to boil. As the solution must 
not be allowed to boil, it is at once removed from the fire, poured into 
a wide dish and allowed to cool. When cool add to every quart about 
1.75 oz. of glycerine and the paste is ready for use. If too thick dilute 
with water previously boiled and allowed to cool, since the paste if 
diluted with ordinary cold water in a short time acquires a bad odor. 
The paste prepared in this manner has a slightly yellow tint, shows 
great lustre after drying and does not become brittle. 

Paste for Manufacturers of Paper Bags. — A paste prepared 
from pure wheat starch and a few per cent, of turpentine is very 
tenacious. Stir the starch with cold water to a homogeneous mass of 
the consistency of syrup, and then pour over it, with constant stirring, 
actually boiling water (not only hot) in a thin jet until the paste has 
acquired a suitable consistency. To 1 part of wheat starch are added 
8 to 10 parts of water according to the desired stiffness of the paste, 
and in order to obtain homogeneity the finished paste has to be stirred 
until half cold. Then liquefy in a suitable vessel previously heated 
about 2 to 5 per cent, of the paste of Venetian or ordinary turpentine, 
and rub it with a portion of the still warm paste until a sort of 
emulsion is formed. Then mix the whole and work it thoroughly 
together. 

Paste for Fastening Paper upon Tin-foil, etc. — Dissolve rye- 
flour in a solution of caustic soda to a paste, and dilute the latter with 
well-water, stirring constantly. Then heat Venetian turpentine and 
add this to the paste, a few drops being sufficient for £ lb. of flour. 
This paste adheres firmly to all metals, tin-foil, glass, etc. 



Paste Suitable for Preserving the Gloss of Patent Leather 
and Preventing Cracking, is made of wax, with a little olive oil, 
lard and oil of turpentine, mixed when warm, and when cooled should 
be of the consistency of thick paste. 

New Method of Hardening and Coloring Plaster of Paris.— 
Mix 6 parts of plaster of paris and 1 part of slaked lime previously 
passed through a fine sieve. Use the mixture in the usual manner, and 
later on, when the layer of plaster of paris is perfectly dry, saturate it 
with a solution of any sulphate whose basis is precipitated in an 



FIRE-EXTINGUISHERS, ETC. 399 

insoluble state by lime ; for instance, the sulphate of iron or of zinc. 
With the use of sulphate of zinc the mass remains white, while with 
that of sulphate of iron it acquires a rust-color. The strength of the 
plaster of paris thus treated surpasses that of the ordinary article 
nearly twenty times, and it is indifferent to atmospheric influences. 
Plaster of paris with an addition of J lime and saturated with sulphate 
of iron especially possesses advantageous features. By coating such 
plaster of paris with linseed oil boiled with oxide of lead, and some- 
what browned by heating, the surface acquires the appearance of 
mahogany, aud by the application of a coat of hard copal lacquer the 
color becomes very beautiful. In this manner an excellent floor-cover- 
ing may be prepared. Spread a layer 0.23 to 0.27 inch deep of the 
mixture of plaster of paris and lime upon the floor, and when com- 

fdetely dry, treat it as above stated, with sulphate of iron, then with 
inseed oil and finally with copal lacquer. 

Marble Imitation. — Figures of plaster of paris can be made to look 
like alabaster by giving them a coat of white dammar varnish, and 
dusting with powdered glass. If the objects be varnished a second 
time and coarsely powdered glass or mica be dusted on, a marble-like 
appearance is produced. 

FIRE-EXTINGUISHING AND FIRE- 
PROOFING MEDIUMS. 

Fire-extinguishing 1 Agents. — The Munich fire-extinguishing 
agent consists of common salt, 43 per cent. ; alum, 19.5 ; Glauber's salt, 
5 ; soda, 3.5 ; water-glass, 6.6 ; and water, 22.3. 

The Vienna fire-extinguishing agent is a solution of 4 parts of 
ferrous sulphate (copperas) and 16 of ammonium sulphate in 100 of 
water. 

Other highly recommended mixtures are as follows: 1. Alum, 30 
per cent. ; ammonium sulphate, 65 ; and ferrous sulphate, 5. 2. Boric 
acid, 20 parts by weight; alum, 30; ferrous sulphate, 25, are dissolved 
in 200 of hot water, and the solution is then slowly poured with constant 
stirring into a cold solution of sodium hyposulphite, 30 parts by 
weight; water-glass, 50 ; and water, 800. 

Johnstone's Fire -extinguishing- Agent. — A mixture of equal 
parts of potassium chlorate, potassium nitrate and pyrolusite (man- 
ganese dioxide) is moistened with water-glass and pressed into a block. 
This block is placed in a paste-board box, and several such boxes con- 
nected by fuses are suspended to the ceiling of the room. 

Hand Granades for Extinguishing Fire are thin-walled, spherical 
bottles of blue-glass filled with a solution of calcium chloride, sal-am- 
moniac or borax. When thrown the bottles break and the fluid con- 
tained in them incrusts the burning object with a more or less glass- 
like layer according to its greater or less concentration. 

Fire-proofing Mediums. — Painting buildings with asbestos has 
become customary in London, and the fire insurance companies of that 
city have lowered the premiums one-half on structures so treated. 



400 FIRE-EXTINGUISHERS, ETC. 

Experiments made in the Champ de Mars, Paris, in trying to burn 
houses painted with it have shown that it is eminently useful for this 
purpose. 

By the employment of asbestos Nagel has produced an entirely in- 
combustible paste-board in the following manner: A thin paste is 
made from 200 parts of oxide of zinc and 100 parts pulverized asbestos ; 
this is spread out upon a metallic web. The mass is rolled, and after 
drying the plate is saturated with a strong solution of chloride of zinc, 
after which it is passed through the rollers a second time. By this 
treatment oxychloride of zinc is produced. The moisture causes the 
formation of a little rust upon the iron wire, by reason of which the 
substance adheres firmly. The plate is again dried and another time 
saturated with chloride of zinc ; the whole is left in this state so that 
oxychloride may form, after which the plate is immersed in water for 
one or two days, whereby all the acid is removed. The plate is then 
washed and thereby receives its desired flexibility. Such plates, manu- 
factured in this manner, will absorb water, but may be made im- 
permeable by saturating them with a silicate and caseiue. 

These plates may also be prepared in another manner. Nagle has, 
for instance, replaced the chloride of zinc by other metallic chlorides 
and sulphate of aluminia. In place of the oxide of zinc, magnesia, 
lime and gypsum may be used. For the covering of roofs, plates of the 
last-iiMined material have been made impermeable by an addition of 
soap, whereby an insoluble combination of the fatty acids with lime 
and alumina is formed. Plates prepared according to Nagel's formula 
will protect wood against danger of injury by fire, as was proved by 
the following experiment: A box 2.36 inches long, 1.58 inches broad 
and 1.18 inches high, and only 0.20 inch thick made of plates of this 
kind, was placed for 5 minutes between the flames of two Bunsen 
burners without any damage ; a paper enclosed within it had not even 
turned brown. 

Asbestos is also a constituent of a colored coating prepared by Wendt 
and Herad ; its composition is as follows: Color (oxide of lead, cop- 
per or manganese) 15 parts; linseed oil, 12; silicate of soda, 50; 
asbestos, talc and kaoline, 15 ; water, 8. 

These inventors have also indicated the following two compositions 
which contain no asbestos : 1. Water, 75.25 parts ; sal-ammoniac, 8 ; 
hyposulphite of soda, 2.25; sulphate of ammonia, 10; borax, 4.5. 
2. Water, 70.5 parts; hyposulphite of soda, 2.5 ; sulphate of potash, 
10 ; borax, 5 ; alum, 1 2. The latter preparation is by them recommended 
for the saturation of wood. 

Rabitz has specified the following method for rendering walls and 
ceilings fire-proof: A tightly stretched metallic web is plastered upon 
each side with a mixture of gypsum, lime and coarse sand, and cow's 
hair. For the walls make the plates from 1J to 2 inches thick; for 
ceiling from 1.18 to 1.38 inches thick; for vaults from 2 to 3 inches 
thick. The walls will be dry in the course of a few days, after which 
they may be painted or papered. The plastering of the composition 
above given may also be replaced by a waterproof cement. Rabitz's 
method possesses a triple advantage: it protects against fire, moisture 
and shaking of the earth. 

The following coating for textile fabrics, wood and paper is recom- 
mended as being incombustible: Boil holly-wood {Ilex a qui folium) 
for one hour in a solution of table salt; to this add sulphate of zinc, 
sal-ammoniac and alum. The mixture must be heated for four hours 



FIRE-EXTINGUISHERS, ETC. 401 

over a gentle fire, then add whalebone and stir so as to incorporate very 
intimately; the fluid is thereupon passed through a fine sieve. When 
to be used, it is applied with a paint brush to the object to be protected. 
Two coats are sufficient for paper or textile fabrics. Evaporation of 
this fluid when stored can be prevented by keeping upon it a thin coat 
of gelatine solution. 

A water-glass solution can be prepared and used in the following 
manner : Melt in a crucible 15 parts quartz or very clean sand, 10 parts 
purified commercial potash, and 1 part charcoal ; these several ingre- 
dients to be in a powdered state. When the mixture runs steady, pour 
out. The solidified glass is powdered and dissolved in four to five- 
fold its weight of boiling water. The solution may be applied with a 
painter's brush; it dries rapidly, and the coating keeps without 
change. 

Painting with caseine colors, which is for the purpose of producing 
fireproof coatings, is done in the following manner: Stir together 3 
parts of fresh curds and 1 part slaked fat lime. For pigments add 
earthy or metallic oxides (peroxide of iron for light red to deep brown, 
ultramarine or cobalt for blue, oxide of zinc or baryta white for white, 
bone black for black), but no organic dye-stuff, "like aniline colors. 
White lead, Prussian blue, cinnabar and ochre are also unsuitable, as 
they first lose their color and then turn black. The caseine lime 
must be prepared on the day on which it is to be used, and the 
brushes must be cleaned each time after using. Painting with caseine 
paints is good both for woodwork and masonry. 

A solution of table-salt and alum, or water-glass and carbomite of 
soda, may also be used as a fireproof paint. The aqua-ammonia of 
gas-houses diluted with water also possesses fire-quenching properties. 
This fluid is objectionable, however, on account of the suffocating 
gases it evolves. ^y 

Rendering- Textiles Fireproof. — Dr. Doremus recommends phos- 
phate of ammonia as a highly effective agentin rendering textiles un- 
inflammable. The fabrics are dipped in a watery solution of the salt, 
wrung out and dried, when, it is said, they will be found completely 
uninflammable. They will blacken, of course, and be destroyed 
where the flame touches them, but the flame will not spread, neither 
will there beany residue of red-hot cinders. 

Preparation of Fireproof Crucibles, Bricks, Etc.— Mix 30 
parts of fragments of very refractory fire-clay, 20 parts of pulverized 
glass, and 5 parts of crude sulphur. Heat the mass until it forms a 
paste. Then add 25 parts of comminuted asbestos and burn the mass 
in moulds lined with asbestos. To increase the refractoriness, the 
quantity of asbestos may be increased and that of the other constituents 
decreased. 

Fireproof Material for Nozzles, Etc.— Mix fire-clay or ganister 
or both substances with 15 to 20 per eent. of graphite, form the mix- 
ture into plugs, nozzles, and other articles used in the manufacture of 
steel, and burn in the usual manner. 



402 GLASS, PORCELAIN, ETC. 

GLASS, PORCELAIN, ETC. 

Frosted Glass. — Verre givre, or hoarfrost glass, is an article made 
in Paris, so called from the pattern upon it, which resembles the 
feathery forms traced by frost on the inside of windows in cold weather. 
The process of making the glass is simple. 

The surface is first ground either by the sand blast or the ordinary 
method, and is then covered with a sort of varnish. On being 
dried, either in the sun or by artificial heat, the varnish contracts 
strongly, taking with it the particles of glass to which it adheres; and 
as the contraction takes place along definite lines, the pattern pro- 
duced by the removal of the particles of glass resembles very closely 
the branching crystals of frost-work. 

A single coat gives a small delicate effect, while a thick film, formed 
by putting on two, three or more coats, contracts so vigorously as to pro- 
duce a large and bold design. By using colored glass, a pattern in 
half-tint may be made on the colored ground, and after decorating 
white glass, the back may be silvered or gilded. 

New Method of Deadening- and Graining- Glass and Mirror 
Plates. — Coat the places which are not to be affected by the acid with 
varnish. For deadening place the respective plates vertically in the 
mixture, and for graining horizontally one upon the other. In the 
latter case the plates are separated by small wooden or metallic blocks. 
The mixture consists of a completely saturated solution of soda or 
potash in hydrofluoric acid. Add four or five times its weight of 
water to the mixture and then 1 quart of acetic acid to every 30 or 40 
quarts of fluid. The coating of varnish can, after the operation, be 
readily removed by dipping the glass into water saturated with potash 
and ammonia or into bisulphide of carbon. 

To File Glass Utensils. — Dip the file in strong caustic soda lye, 
and then, while still wet, into coarse sand. With a file thus prepared 
glass utensils can be worked without cracking the glass. 

Cutting Glass by Electricity. — The large cylinders of window 
glass are encircled with a fine wire, the extremities of which are put 
in connection with a small electric battery. It is necessary that the 
wire adhere closely to the glass. When the current of electricity is 
passed through the wire it becomes red hot and heats the glass beneath 
it. Then a single drop of water deposited on the heated place will 
cause a clean breakage of the glass clear around in the path of the 
wire. Contrary to what takes place with the usual process in the 
treatment of this fragile material, it is found that the thicker the sides 
of the cylinder the better the cut. 

To Drill Glass. — In drilling glass stick apiece of stiff clay or putty 
on the part where you wish to make the hole. Make a hole in the 
putty the size you want the hole, reaching to the glass of course. Into 
this hole pour a little molten lead, when, unless it is very thick glass, 
the piece will immediately drop out. 

To Drill Majolica and Porcelain.— Ceramic objects can be readily 
drilled with steel tools. The best tool for drilling through glaze or a 



LACQUERS, PAINTS, VARNISHES, ETC. 403 

glass body is an ordinary scriber diamond, hardened and moistened 
with oil of turpentine when used. With majolica and porcelain with- 
out glaze it is best to drill under water; for instance, filling the vessel 
with water and placing it in another vessel filled with water so that 
the drill is used under water and passes again into water after pene- 
trating the ceramic object. Instead of filling glazed articles with water 
a piece of cork may be placed on the point where the drill is to pass 
through. The pressure applied to the drill varies according to the 
hardness of the material ; it must, however, gradually decrease as the 
drill approaches the point of exit on the other side, and finally cease 
altogether in order to avoid splintering. For enlarging small holes 
already existing it is best to use three-cornered or four-square broaches, 
ground smooth, in the same manner as above described (under w T ater) ; 
for hard material, such as glass and glaze, moisten the broach with oil 
of turpentine. The simultaneous use of oil of turpentine and water 
is best in all cases, and especially when the object to be drilled does 
not permit the sole use of the oil as is the case with majolica and 
unglazed porcelain, which absorb the oil without water being used. 

Pencil for Writing- on Glass, Etc. — The pencils introduced for 
writing upon glass, porcelain, and metals in red, white, and blue, are 
made by melting together spermaceti 4 parts, tallow 3, and wax 2, and 
coloring the mixture with white lead, red lead, or Prussian blue, as 
desired. 

Electroplating" Glass and Porcelain. — The chief difficulty 
hitherto experienced in the electroplating of glass and porcelain has 
been to obtain a conducting surface which would not prevent the 
proper adherence of the metallic coating. M. Hansen uses chloride of 
gold or of platinum, dissolved in sulphuric ether, to which sulphur 
dissolved in some heavy oil is added. This compound after having 
been slightly heated possesses sufficient consistency to allow of a film 
being laid on the glass with a brush. The object treated in this way 
is then moderately heated in a muffle until the sulphur and chloride 
are completely volatilized, the gold or platinum adhering firmly to 
the surface. The best copper bath is two parts of sulphate of copper 
to three of distilled water. In silver-plating, seventeen parts of nitrate 
of silver and thirteen parts of cyanide of potassium dissolved in three 
hundred parts of water are used. For gold-plating, seven parts of 
gold are used which are preferably dissolved in aqua regia, and pre- 
cipitated by means of ammonia. This precipitate, while still wet, is 
then placed in a warm solution consisting of nine parts of cyanide of 
potassium and ninety parts of water. 

To Perforate Earthen Vessels. — Instead of the drill a stick of 
soft copper and a mixture of emery powder with linseed oil is used in 
the turning-lathe. In consequence of the friction the emery adheres 
closely to the copper, and in a few minutes effects the perforation of 
the hardest materials. 

LACQUERS, PAINTS, VARNISHES, ETC. 

Aluminium Palmitate. — Aluminium palmitate, a combination of 
alumina and palmitic acid, is a resinous substance of remarkable prop- 



404 LACQUERS, PAINTS, VARNISHES, ETC. 

erties, making it useful for many purposes, but especially for the 
manufacture of lacquer. It melts at a higher temperature than dam- 
mar and copal resin, and is easily soluble in oil of turpentine and 
benzine. The simplest method of preparing the palmitate is as fol- 
lows : Boil good palm-oil soap or tallow soap in rain water until a 
clear solution is obtained, and filter the hot solution through several 
close cloths. Now heat the solution again and dilute with an equal 
volume of rain water. Then add a boiling hot solution of alum (com- 
mercial alum cake) as long as a precipitate is formed. This precipitate 
is allowed to settle, the supernatant fluid is then poured off, and the 
precipitate washed several times with boiling water. The precipitate 
is then dried and heated in a pot standing in a vessel filled with boiling 
water until it becomes transparent. To prepare lacquer, heat oil of 
turpentine in a pot nearly to the boiling point, and add a sufficient 
quantity of the aluminium palmitate to form a solution of the con- 
sistency of thick varnish. Should this prove too viscid when cold, it 
can be readily reduced by adding hot oil of turpentine. 

Articles coated with this lacquer should be placed near a hot stove 
so that they will dry quickly. Palmitate lacquer is of value in manu- 
facturing gold papers and for coating genuine and imitation leather 
hangings, giving to the latter the characteristic gloss of stamped letter, 
and preserving it in the first. It furnishes also an excellent vegetable 
glue which does not spoil, is and remains entirely neutral, and conse- 
quently exerts no injurious influence upon the shades of the colors. 
This makes it especially useful in the manufacture of velvet wall- 
papers. If used as a sizing on cotton fabrics, it imparts to them a 
silky gloss, which does not entirely disappear even after frequent wash- 
ings. This sizing on account of its neutrality and entire indifference 
can be used for fabrics printed with the most critical colors without 
injuring them in the least. Palmitate lacquer is not acted upon by 
water, and as it is perfectly flexible, can, therefore, be advantageously 
used in ihe manufacture of artificial leather, rubber tissues and water- 
proof fabrics; its property of being entirely inodorous when dry 
deserving special commendation. 

Iron Palmitate Varnish for Water-proofing- Paper, Tissues, 
etc. — Dissolve sulphate of iron (green vitriol) in water, and add filtered 
Solution of palm oil soap or tallow soap as long as a precipitate is formed. 
The precipitate, which now represents an iron soap, is taken out, dried 
and dissolved in benzine so as to form a solution of the consistency of 
varnish. 

Zapon, a New Lacquer. — This lacquer is manufactured by the 
Frederick Crane Chemical Co., Short Hills, N. J. It represents a clear, 
almost colorless, thickish fluid of the consistency of collodion, and 
smells somewhat like fruit ether. It consists essentially of a solution 
of celluloid in a mixture of amyl acetate and aceton. Of the last two 
bodies the "thinning fluid," accompanying the preparation, also consists. 
The superiority of this product is due to the favorable properties of the 
celluloid. The transparent, colorless coat obtained with zapon can be 
bent with the metallic sheet to which it has been applied without crack- 
ing. It is so hard that it can scarcely be scratched with the finger-nail, 
shows no trace of stickiness, and is perfectly homogeneous even on the 
edges. This favorable behavior is very likely due to the slow evapora* 
tion of the solvent, and the fact that the lacquer quickly forms a 



LACQUERS, PAINTS, VARNISHES, ETC. 405 

thickish, tenacious layer, which though moved with difficulty is not 
entirely immobile. Another advantage of zapon — especially as regards 
metallic articles — is that the coating in consequence of its physical 
constitution preserves the character of the basis. In accordance with 
the nature of celluloid the coating is not sensibly affected by ordinary 
differences in temperature, and does not in the course of time become 
dull and non-transparent, as is the case with resins, in consequence of 
the loss of molecular coherence. It can be washed with soap and 
water, and protects metals coated with it from the action of the atmos- 
phere. Zapon may also be colored, but, of course, only with coloring 
substances (mostly aniline colors) which are soluble in the solvent used 
for the celluloid. Dipping the articles in zapon being more advan- 
tageous than painting, the manufacturers have constructed a special 
dipping apparatus. 

Mattolein or Dull (matt) Lacquer. — Dissolve 18 parts of sandarao 
and 4 of mastic in 192 parts of ether, and add 48 to 144 parts of benzine. 
The more benzine the coarser the grain of the lacquer. 

Preparation of Resin Pigments.— For the manufacture of the so- 
called resin pigments, prepare first a solution of resin soap by boiling 
for one hour, with constant stirring, 100 parts by weight of pale colo- 
phony with 10 of dry, 96 per cent, caustic soda, 33 of crystallized car- 
bonate of soda and 1000 of water, and then cooling the solution to 
about 112° F. by a further addition of 1000 parts of water. According 
to the desired intensity of the color, add to this soap 5 to 15 per cent, 
of the weight of the resin used, of the filtered solution of a basic 
aniline color — fuchsin, methyl — violet, brilliant green, safranin, 
chrysoidin, auramin, methyl blue, rhodamiu. The alkaline-color 
mixture thus prepared is then compounded, with constant stirring, 
with small portions of a dilute aqueous solution of a metallic salt — for 
the above-mentioned quantity of resin about 55 parts of sulphate of 
zinc in 1000 of water — until precipitation is complete. A slight excess 
of the metallic salt facilitates the subsequent filtering and washing. 
The precipitate is carefully washed upon filtering cloths, or by means 
of filtering presses, whereby hard cakes with a content of 18 to 25 per 
cent, of resin pigment are obtained, which are dried at as high a tempera- 
ture as possible, 104° to 112° F. as a general rule, but for magnesium 
precipitates at 158° F. 

The resin pigments are soluble in alcohol; in benzol and its homo- 
logies, further in ether, chloroform, acetal and many volatile oils 
they dissolve, in a dry state, in thp proportion of 1 ; 1, and form with 
them, according to the quantity of solvent, more or less thickly fluid 
varnishes which upon a smooth surface quickly dry to a lustrous, hard, 
transparent, colored coating. The precipitates are further readily 
soluble in varnishes prepared with alcohol, benzine, or oil of turpen- 
tine, in melting wax, resins, palmitic, stearic, and aleic acids, and 
their homologues, in rancid oils, and boiled linseed oil. Their solu- 
bility decreases with a higher content of coloring matter, which should 
not exceed 20 per cent, of the weight of resin. In oil of turpentine 
they are entirely insoluble. 

By the addition of solutions of caoutchouc and gutta-percha the 
elasticity and durability of the varnishes are essentially increased. 
An especially good composition is as follows, which can be used either 
by itself oi as au addition to other varnishes : Dissolve 30 parts of 



406 LACQUERS, PAINTS, VARNISHES, ETC. 

magnesium resin pigment in 80 of benzol, and 20 of chloroform, and 
mix with it 150 parts of a 1J per cent, solution of caoutchouc in bisul- 
phide of carbon and benzol, previously clarified by heating. 

Such varnishes are especially suitable for decorating lustrous me- 
tallic surfaces (tin-foil), wood, paper, leather, glass. On account of 
their cheapness and resistance to the influence of light the metallic 
resinates of iron, chromium, copper, manganese in combination with 
Bismarck brown or other coloring substances are preferable in many 
cases, especially for painting wood. Very neat, dark-brown to black 
shades are obtained by a suitable mixture of fuchsin resinate with 
green or blue, chrysoidinor auramin resinates. Such mixtures are very 
suitable for printing and lithographing inks. With dilute solutions of 
resin pigments in benzol, textile fabrics can be dyed in a bath, this 
method being used for silk, silk ribbons, satins and artificial flowers 
whose colors are to be fast. They can further be used for dyeing and 
printing caoutchouc and caoutchouc wares, celluloid, oil-cloth, lino- 
leum, etc., also for coloring white lead, zinc white, sulphide of zinc, 
heavy spar, chalk. In an undried, paste-like amorphous condition, 
they are suitable for the fabrication of colored pencils, and com- 
pounded with gum tragacanth, starch or albumen for printing wall- 
papers, whereby through the action of the vapor of their solvent 
they pass into the dissolved, transparent state in which they adhere 
like varnish upon every surface. 

French Polish.— The preparation of French polish is very similar 
to that of other spirit and naphthalic varnishes. Sometimes it is 
colored in order to change to a greater or less extent the hue of the 
wood to which it is applied. A reddish tinge is given with dragon's 
blood, alkanet root, or red sanders wood; and a yellow tinge by tur- 
meric root and gamboge. When it is simply required to darken the 
wood, brown shellac is employed to make the polish ; and when the 
object is to keep the wood light colored, a little oxalic acid (2 to 4 
drachms to the pint) is commonly added. These substances are either 
steeped in or agitated with the polish, or with the solvent before pour- 
ing on the "gums," until they dissolve, or a sufficient effect is pro- 
duced. French polish is not required to be clear and limpid, and is, 
therefore, never artificially clarified. The process of polishing with it 
is thus performed : The surface to be operated on being finished off as 
smoothly as possible with sand-paper, and placed opposite the light, 
the polish being on hand in a narrow-necked bottle, the polisher 
moistens the flatface of the rubber of the polish by laying the rubber 
on the mouth of the bottle and shaking up the varnish. The operator 
next places the rubber, which has imbibed a portion of the varnish, 
in a soft linen cloth doubled, the rest of the cloth being gathered back 
from the handle. The face of the linen is now moistened with a little 
raw linseed oil, applied with the finger to the middle of it, and the 
operation of polishing is immediately commenced. The rubber is 
passed quickly and lightly over in circular sweeps, until the varnish 
is very nearly dry, when the rubber is used without the oil. Three 
coats are thus successively laid on. A little oil is then applied to the 
rubber, and two more coats are given. As soon as the coatings of 
varnish have acquired some thickness, the varnish is dampened with 
alcohol or wood naphtha, to secure a quick, light, uniform touch. 
The work is finally carefully gone over with a linen cloth moistened 



LACQUERS, PAINTS, VARNISHES, ETC. 407 

with a little oil, and rectified spirits or naphtha without varnish, and 
rubbed as before until dry. 

Several varnishes are used under the name of French polish. That 
most generally employed is a simple solution of the shellac and 
alcohol. Sometimes a" little mastic, sandarac or elemi, or copal var- 
nish is added to render the polish tougher. The following prepara- 
tions are now in general use : 

1. Pale shellac, 5i ozs. ; finest wood naphtha, 1 pint. Dissolve. 

2. Pale shellac, 3 lbs.; wood naphtha, 1 gallon, or methylated spirit 
in place of the latter. 

3. Pale shellac, 5 ozs. ; gum sandarac, 1 oz. ; spirit, 1 pint. 

4. Pale shellac, 5£ ozs. ; gum elemi, a piece three-quarter inch 
square; spirit, 1 pint. 

5. Pale shellac" li lbs. ; mastic, i lb. ; spirit, 2 quarts. 

6. Pale shellac, 2i lbs. ; mastic and sandarac, of each 3 oz. ; spirit, 1 
gallon. Dissolve and add 1 pint copal varnish, and mix by agitating 
the vessel. 

7. Shellac, 12 oz. ; wood naphtha, 1 quart. Dissolve in £ pint lin- 
seed oil. 

8. Shellac, £ lb.; gum sandarac, Jib.; spirit, 1 quart. Dissolve and 
add J pint of copal varnish; mix well, and then add i pint linseed 
oil. The last two require no oil on the rubber. 

Furniture Polish.— Mix 100 parts by weight of linseed oil, 750^ 
of ether, 1000 of rectified oil of turpentine, and 1000 of benzine, and 
perfume with a volatile oil; the latter may, however, be omitted. 
Apply the mixture with a woolen rag. For special purposes the 
preparation may be colored with turmeric, annotto, alkanet, etc. 

Varnishes for Toys. — 1. Melt in an iron pot with constant stirring, 
32.5 lbs. of comminuted, yellow, transparent American resin. When 
thoroughly melted remove the fire from under the pot and intimately 
mix with the melted resin 48.75 lbs. of oil of turpentine. The varnish 
thus prepared is filtered through a woolen cloth and kept for use in 
large glass balloons thoroughly stoppered. 

II. In a large vat dissolve without the application of heat but with 
constant stirring 27.5 lbs. of comminuted, yellow, transparent American 
resin, and 22 ozs. of Venetian turpentine in 41.25 lbs. of 85 or 90 per 
cent, alcohol. Filter the varnish through a woolen cloth, and keep in 
well-stoppered bottles. 

Transparent Varnish for Metals. — For a green transparent 
varnish for metals, grind a small quantity of Chinese blue with double 
the quantity of finely powdered chromate of potash (it requires the 
most elaborate grinding) ; add a sufficient quantity of copal varnish 
thinned with turpentine. The tone may be altered by adding more or 
less of one or the other ingredients. 

Copal Varnish for Labels. — A copal varnish better than dammar 
for labels is made by first dissolving 5 parts of camphor in 60 of ether, 
then add 20 parts of finely powdered gum copal, shake well once in a 
while for a couple of days, when the copal will be partly dissolved, 
partly only swollen. Now add 20 parts of absolute alcohol and 2 of 
oil of turpentine. Shake well at times for a couple of days, and let 
stand. Draw off the clear liquid for use. 



408 LACQUERS, PAINTS, VARNISHES, ETC. 

Varnishing' Marble Paper. — Before commencing to varnish the 
paper give the same one or two coats of weak size made from glue, 
being careful to touch every part of it or it will show gray. When dry 
it is ready for varnish. The glue must be clear or it will tint the 
varnish. All paper will not varnish. 

How to Keep Varnish. — A varnish made with alcohol will get 
dull and spongy by the evaporation of the alcohol, which leaves water 
in the varnish, as all commercial alcohol contains water. It is, there- 
fore, advisable to take a thin sheet of gelatine, cut it into strips and 
put it into the varnish ; it will absorb in the thin sheet most of the 
water, and the varnish can be used clear and bright till the last drop. 
The gelatine will get quite soft. It can then be taken out and used 
again. 

Marbling. — An Italian pink marble surface is produced as follows : 
Over a white ground apply a coat, the pigment being mixed with equal 
quantities of turpentine and oil. Proceed to lay on tints of ultra- 
marine and white lead and vermilion, each of these pigments being 
mixed with equal quantities of oil and turpentine, and with these dab 
patches, using a sable pencil, and subsequently softening the work with 
a badger. On the palette place some Indian red, and with a small 
pigeon feather dipped in the turpentine and some of the Indian red, 
work the pattern and well-soften. When this is dry mix some white 
lead rather thinly with turpentine and flat the whole of the work ; then 
with a feather dipped in turpentine scumble over the work, and subse- 
quently put in whites with white lead and turpentine. When the sur- 
face is hard, varnish. 

For Florentine marble the ground is white. Indian red and black, 
mixed together, form a very light reddish neutral tint, which is next to 
be applied over the surface. The veins are umber and burnt sienna; 
they are laid on very irregularly, while the ground-color is wet; some- 
times they are very close together, and then seem to break suddenly 
into the forms of rocks and ruins — an effect which must be studied 
from natural specimens, and be imitated by hand. 

To imitate verde antique marble the ground must be either black or 
dark-green. The marbling colors are dark-brown and green. Scum- 
ble over the work with these ; then with Brunswick green and 
white lead scumble over again and soften with a badger; next with 
a fitch paint masses of white of various shapes, as squares, irregular 
triangles, etc. ; also insert masses of black. The latter have a cer- 
tain darkening effect on the browns and greens. For blue and gold 
marbling the ground must be of alight-blue, and when this is quite 
dry dab on in separate patches, light-blue, white and Prussian blue, 
leaving portions of the ground visible. Soften these patches together, 
and then vein in every direction with white and fill up some of the 
irregular spaces with yellow or gold paint and finally add white veins. 

How to Handle and Lay Gold Leaf. — Procure a surface board 
1\ feet in length and 8 inches wide. Lay your book of leaf on this 
board, and with a knife or pair of shears cut the back of the leaves off' 
where they -are bound together. Take a small piece of unbleached 
muslin, wet it with clean turpentine, and with this rub over the top 
layer of paper. Lift the paper and place on your board so the edge of the 
paper will extend half an inch or so over the edge of the board so you 



LACQUERS, PAINTS, VARNISHES, ETC. 409 

can pick it up with ease. Care should be taken not to get the cloth 
too wet or the turpentine will go through the first layer of paper and 
leaf to the second and stick the two together. Proceed in this way 
until about half of the book is lifted, if you need that much. It is 
best not to lift too much at a time until you get it cut the size 
wanted, as it will handle and cut much nicer if done while the paper 
is damp. 

The above process is intended for large strips only. For I inch 
strips and under, in place of wetting with turpentine, lift the first 
layer of paper and give it a few rubs on your trousers' leg to get the 
chalk off, and then a tew rubs on your hair. Then place back on the 
leaf, and press evenly and hard with the edge of your hands. Take 
care to keep the paper from moving on the leaf, as it will tear it, if 
moved the least bit. 

One leaf can be cut in pieces small enough to lay 8 or 10 feet of 
Stripe, and, with a little practice, it can be done very speedily too. In 
cutting, hold the paper so the pieces will fall on the board with their 
ends extending over the edge half an inch, so you can pick them up 
with the thumb and forefinger. Never attempt to cut the leaf with 
new or newly ground shears, but get the ones with which your 
wife allows the children to make paper dolls, and you will find those 
just right. 

In using turpentine, do not lift more than will do the job in hand, 
as it will dry up and come off and be wasted, or stick to the paper so 
you cannot get it off. In using the outside leaf or cover put it on while 
quite wet or the leaf will not come off. The finish on the paper will 
stick the leaf and paper together if allowed to dry. If painters will 
try this method they will find they can lay twice the amount of leaf in 
the same time and with very little waste. 

Japan Dryer. — Take of linseed oil 5 gallons, red lead and litharge 
each 3i lbs., raw umber If lbs., and sugar of lead f lb. Pulverize 
and mix together the ingredients named, and add them to the oil, and 
boil or simmer them over a steady fire for two or three hours. Remove 
the kettle, and when the oil has become cooled down to a certain de- 
gree add 5 gallons of turpentine. Having stirred the mixture thor- 
oughly, allow it to remain quiet for ten or twelve hours, then pour it 
off carefully and can it. It will then be ready for use. 

Gold Beetle -colored Bronze. — Mix equal parts of chromate of 
potash and table salt. After the powder is finely mixed, let it pass 
through a sieve, then put this powder into a crucible and cover it with 
a layer of salt. Cover the crucible and allow the contents to boil half 
an hour. After cooling wash out the contents carefully with water, 
and the mass on being rubbed will show a beautiful bronze. 

Approved Method of Painting- Tin Roofs.— The composition 
of the paint is as follows : Venetian red 10 lbs., red lead 1 lb., and 
4.5 quarts of pure linseed oil. A partial substitution of benzine or 
train-oil for linseed oil injures the durability and quality of the paint. 
The roof lasts longer and the tin is less inclined to rust if the 
lower side is also painted before placing the tin on the roof. It is also 
recommended to lay one or two layers of felt-paper under the tin. This 
forms, so to say, a cushion for the tin, and also deadens the noise of 
28 



I 



410 METAL AND STONE. 

rain falling upon the roof. The coat of paint should be renewed after 
the first year, and later on every four years. 

New Method of Rendering- Brick Walls Impermeable to 
"Water. — This new method of rendering brick walls impermeable to 
water is known as the Sylvester process. It consists in the successive 
application of two coatings, one of soap and water, and one of alum 
and water. For the soap solution 11 ozs. of soap are dissolved in 1 
quart of water, and for the alum solution 7 ozs. of alum in 4 quarts of 
water. The walls must be dry and clean, and the temperature of the 
air not exceed 50° F. The soap solution is first applied boiling-hot 
with aflat brush. After twenty-four hours, when this coating is hard 
and dry, the alum solution is applied at a temperature of from 61° to 
70° F. After twenty-four hours the entire process is repeated until the 
wall is impermeable. The number of coatings required depends on 
the water pressure to which the walls are exposed. 

To Renovate Old Brick Walls. — Old brick walls may be en- 
livened and renewed by this process : Eemove any mouldy green that 
may have accumulated by pouring over the bricks boiling water (not 
greasy), in which any vegetables have been cooked. Eepeat for a lew 
days and the green»will disappear. To prepare a red wash, melt 1 oz. of 
glue in a gallon of water, and while hot, add a piece of alum as large 
as a hen's egg, \ lb. of Venetian red, and 1 lb. of Spanish brown. If 
the color, upon trying this paint, is found to be too light, add more 
brown and red ; if too dark, put in more water. 

Whitewash for Indoor Work. — An excellent whitewash fort 
indoor work is made of 2 lbs. Paris whiting, 1 oz. white glue ; dissolve 
the glue in warm water. Mix the whiting with warm water, stir in 
the glue and thin with warm water. 

To Prepare Zinc for Painting". — Apply sulphuric acid and water 
for a quarter of an hour ; then wash off clean with water, and dry. 

Waterproof Whitewash. — Mix together the powder from 3 parts 
silicious rock (quartz), 3 parts broken marble and sandstone, also 2 
parts of burned porcelain clay, with 2 parts freshly slaked lime, still 
warm. In this way a wash is made which forms a silicate if often 
wetted, and becomes, after a time, almost like stone. The four constit- 
uents mixed together give the ground color, to which any pigment 
that can be used with lime is added. It is applied quite thickly to the 
wall or other surface, let dry one day, and the next frequently covered 
with water, which makes it water-proof. This wash can be cleansed 
with water without losing any of its color; on the contrary, each time 
it gets harder, so that it can even be brushed, while its porosity makes 
it look soft. The wash or calcimine can be used for ordinary purposes 
as well as for the finest painting. A so-called fresco surface can be 
prepared with it in a dry way. 



METAL AND STONE. 

Polishing Agents for Metals.— I. Polishing (Putz) Soaps. 1. Stir 



METAL AND STONE. 411 

iuto 25 lbs. of liquid cocoanut oil soap 2 lbs. of tripoli and 1 lb. each 
of alum, tartaric acia and white lead. 

2. Stir into 25 lbs. of liquid cocoanut oil snap 5 lbs. of colcothar 
(jeweller's rouge) and 1 lb. of ammonium carbonate. 

3. Mix 25 lbs. of liquid cocoanut oil soap with 4 to 5 lbs. of glowed 
oxalate of iron. 

4. Stir together 24 lbs. of cocoanut oil with 12 lbs. of lye of 38° to 40°, 
and when the mass appears bright add 3 lbs. of colcothar, mixed with 
3 lbs. of water, and, finally, 1 oz. 2 drachms of spirit of sal-ammoniac. 

5. 332 parts by weight of white bole or chalk, the same quantity of 
tartaric acid, and 265 parts of infusorial earth, are first finely 
powdered, and the bole, chalk, and infusorial earth freed from 
adhering pebbles by sifting. The sifted mass is then brought into a 
vessel, and after pouring water over it and thoroughly stirring, the 
bole, or chalk, etc., which is finely divided in the water, is poured off, 
and the operation repeated once or twice. The bole is then allowed to 
deposit on the bottom of the vessel, and after carefully pouring off 
the supernatant liquid, is brought upon a filter and completely dried 
in a stove. To the bole, etc., thus prepared, are added 200 parts by 
weight of glycerine, the same quantity of water, and 25 parts of 
alcohol. 

6. Reduce 5£ lbs. of cocoanut soap to fine shavings, add some water 
and melt. To the melted soap add then, with vigorous stirring, 6 ozs. 
5 drachms of chalk, 3 oz. 2 drachms each of alum, tartaric acid and 
white lead. 

II. Polishing (Putz) Pomades. 1. Melt 5 lbs. of lard or yellow vase- 
line and stir into the melted mass 1 lb. of fine colcothar. 

2. Melt 2 lbs. of palm oil and 2 lbs. of vaseline and stir into the 
melted mass 1 lb. of ferric oxide, 14 ozs. of tripoli, and 12 drachms of 
oxalic acid. 

3. Heat 4 lbs. of fat American mineral oil and 1 lb. of lard and stin 
into the melted mass 5 lbs. of fine colcothar. i 

Putz pomade is generally perfumed with some essence of mirbane j 
(nitrobenzole), and packed in small tin boxes. 

III. Polishing Powders. 1. Mix intimately 4 lbs. carbonate of 
magnesia, 4 lbs. of calcium carbonate, and 7 lbs. of ferric oxide. 

2. Mix 4 lbs. of carbonate of magnesia with 5 ozs. 4 drachms of 
elutriated colcothar. 

IV. Polishing Rags. Polishing rags for metals are prepared from 
a woolen stuff saturated with soap and tripoli, and colored with cor- 
alline, as follows: 1 oz. 6 drachms of Castile soap are dissolved in 
7 ozs. of water. Add to the solution 11 drachms of tripoli, and color 
red with coralline. The above quantity suffices for the saturation of 
10 pieces of stuff, each about 27 inches long and 3| inches wide. 

Polishing" Water. — An excellent, and at the same time harmless, 
polishing water is obtained by shaking together 8 ozs. 13 drachms of 
whiting, 1 lb. of alcohol, and 11 drachms of spirit of sal-ammoniac. 

Polishing' Agents for Noble Metals. — I. Polishing Poivder for 
Gold Workers. Mix together carbonate of lead 4.3 parts, carbonate 
of lime (chalk) 17.4, carbonate of magnesia 1.7, alumina 4.3, silica 2.6, 
jeweller's rouge 1.7. 

II. Polishing Powders for Silver. 1. Mix intimately finely pul- 
verized cream -of-tartar 4 parts, Spanish white 8 parts, pulverized 



412 METAL AND STONE. 

alum 2. Knead the mixture to a stiff paste, with strong wine vinegar, 
and expose it to the air. When dry pulverize the mass, make it again 
into a paste with spirits of wine, and again repeat the same process 
after drying. Finally pulverize the mass thus obtained. 

2. Mix intimately : Burnt hartshorn, finely pulverized, 1 part, chalk 
5 parts, colcothar 1 part. 

3. Mix intimately by sifting 10 parts of the finest whiting, and 1 
part of soda and \ part of citric acid, both reduced to a fine powder. 
For use the powder is moistened Avith water so that the soda and citric 
acid dissolve, and act chemically upon the silver. 

4. Mix intimately by repeated sifting, so that the whole forms a 
powder of a uniformly reddish color in which no red or white particles 
can be observed, whiting 250 parts, pipe-clay 117, white lead 62, mag- 
nesia 23, jeweller's rouge 23. 

III. English Silver Soap. This soap, which may be used for giving 
silver articles a beautiful lustre by brushing, is prepared as follows : 
Dissolve 2 parts of Castile (pure olive oil) soap in 2 parts of soft water 
over a fire, and stir into the melted mass 6 parts of elutriated chalk. 
The soap is brought into moulds and allowed to cool. 

W.English Rose-color Silver Soap. This soap is prepared in the 
same manner as the preceding, but instead of 6 parts of elutriated 
chalk, the following ingredients are stirred into the melted mass : 
Fine white tripoli 2 parts, pulverized chalk 3 parts, and jeweller's 
rouge 1 part. Before pouring the soap into moulds it is perfumed with 
a few drops of oil of lavender, whereby it acquires an excellent odor 
which contributes towards its ready sale. 

V. Polishing Balls for Silver. This polishing agent consists, of 
polishing powder brought into the form of a ball by means of an agglu- 
tinant. It is prepared by thoroughly mixing 2 parts of yellow tripoli 
and 5 parts of elutriated chalk, aud making the mixture into a paste 
with a solution of 1 part of gum arabic in 12 parts of water. The 
paste is then formed by the hand into balls the size of a pigeon's egg. 
The balls are dried in a moderately warm room and finally wrapped 
in tinfoil. 

VI. Silver Polishing (Putz) Pomade. Perfume 3 parts of American 
vaseline with a few drops of essence of mirbane (nitrobenzole), and 
stir into it so that an intimate mixture of the consistency of butter is 
formed, 5 parts of elutriated chalk, 1 part of burnt hartshorn, and 1 
part of pulverized Ossa sepia (cuttle-bone). The pomade is packed in 
small tin boxes. 

Polishing- Paste for Brass. — Dissolve 15 parts of oxalic acid in 
120 of boiling water, and add 500 parts of pulverized pumice stone, 7 
of oil of turpentine, 60 of softsoap, and 65 of any kind of fat oil. 

Rouge for Polishing" Metals. — As the rouge found in the market 
does not meet the requirements of the workman, at least for every metal, 
wegiveavery simple method which allows the workman to prepare 
for. himself just the quality and quantity necessary for his particular 
work. Heat sulphate of iron of as pure a quality as can be obtained 
in an iron vessel over a slow fire, stirring it continually with an iron 
spatula till it is dry, and takes the form of a pale greenish-yellow 
powder. This powder, after being crushed in a mortar and sifted, is 
t<> be calcined in a new crucible, and exposed to the fire of a smelting 
stove as long as vapors arise from it. As soon as no more of these can. 



METAL AND STONE. 413 

be observed, tbe contents of the crucible may be left to cool, and 
when cool will appear like the rouge used for polishing. Its color 
may vary from pale red to brown red, or even to blue and violet, but 
these variations arise only from the different degrees of heat employed ; 
and it may be observed that the higher the temperature has been 
during the process the darker the color, and the harder the powder— 
a fact which also explains why the pale-red powder is used only for 
gold and silver, while the violet is employed for steel. No matter 
what the color is, it is very important that the rouge be well bruised 
and washed in water before it is used. For this purpose three clean 
glasses are taken and one of them is filled with pure water, in which a 
part of the rouge is mixed by stirring it for some time with a small 
piece of wood. After allowing about half a minute for the rouge to 
settle to the bottom of the glass the remainder of the (red) liquid is 
decanted into the second glass, but every particle of the deposit must 
be left in the first one. The same process has to be observed also for 
the second and third glasses, but with this difference: the powder in 
the second glass is allowed to settle about two minutes, while in the 
third one it is left for several hours, that is, until the water assumes 
its natural clearness. The sediment of the first glass is almost value- 
less, that of the second of medium quality, but that of the third glass 
is of a very good quality, and fit to be used with great advantage after 
it has been slowly dried. In some cases the rouge thus obtained may 
be mixed with grease, and generally it will be found of great advan- 
tage to moisten it with spirits of wine, and burn it in a clean iron vessel. 

Cleaning- Metal and Stonework. — The surfaces to be cleansed 
are submitted to the action of a jet of mixed (dilute) hydrochloric and 
sulphuric acids and left for 2 or 3 hours, when they are brushed and 
finally washed with a water jet. In the case of lime-stone the hydro- 
chloric acid unites with the calcium, forming chloride of lime, which 
is then decomposed by the sulphuric acid, forming a calcium sulphate, 
this being precipitated on the face of the stone and containing all the 
impurities, which are then removed by the action of the brush and 
water jet. In many cases this treatment will not succeed unless the 
stoue is previously prepared, as the masonry becomes coated with a de- 
posit of impurities contained in the atmosphere which prevents the 
acids reaching the stones. In this case, before applying the acids, the 
stone is covered with a paste consisting of a mixture of carbonate of 
soda and calcium hydrate, which is called " tolugene." It is spread 
over the masonry to a thickness of from £ to 1 millimetre and left there 
for three-quarters of an hour to an hour, when the excess is washed 
down and brushed off and the acids applied as described. In cleaning 
ironwork the " tolugene " alone is used. It is spread over the work 
either with a trowel or brush, and in the course of an hour or so will 
have united with all the oil of the paint, leaving the red-lead on the work 
in the form of a powder, which can easily be washed off" with a jet of 
water. In cleansing brick the work is first painted with a solution of 
ammonium fluoride, and this immediately afterwards is treated with a 
jet of concentrated sulphuric acid, which liberates hydrofluoric acid, 
and this attacks the silicates, depriving them of their silica. The whole 
surface is afterwards thoroughly washed with water. 

To Clean Marble Ornaments.— In cleaning marble ornaments, 
etc., great care must be exercised to use nothing uunoaive, like acids, 



414 METAL AND STONE. 

chlorides or metallic salts, sucli as are usually recommended for re- 
moving stains of ink and dyes from wool and textile fabrics. When 
marble has been stained by ink or vegetable coloring matter the only 
way to remove it is to apply warm water abundantly and for a long 
time. If the marble is very compact, and the stain consequently quite 
superficial, the article may be scraped and repolished, bur,, of course, 
this is applicable only to objects which have plain surfaces or those 
with simple curves. Elaborately carved or sculptured objects could 
not be so treated. Greasy stains may be removed by covering them 
with a paste of chalk and potash or soda. The alkali will convert the 
grease into soap, which will be gradually absorbed by the chalk and 
thus removed. In such cases, however, the stains, especially if old, 
may require a long time and several repetitions of the process. Alka- 
lies (potash, soda and ammonia) may be applied to marble without 
injuring it. 

Polishing- Granite. — The form is given to the stone by the hands 
of skilled workmen in much the same way as is done with other stones 
of a softer nature. Of course the time required is considerably greater 
in the case of granite as compared with other stones. If the surface is 
not to be polished, but only fine-axed, as it is called, that is done by 
the use of a hammer composed of a number of slips of steel about one- 
sixteenth inch thick, which are tightly bound together, the edges be- 
ing placed on the same plane. With this tool the workman smooths 
the surface of the stone by a series of taps or blows given at a right 
angle to the surface operated upon. By this means the marks of the 
single axe by which the blows are given obliquely on the surface of 
the stone are obliterated and a smooth face produced. Polishing is 
performed by rubbing in the first place by an iron tool and with sand 
and water. Emery is next applied ; then putty with flannel. All 
plain surface and moulding can be done by machinery, but all carv- 
ings or surfaces broken into small portions of various elevations are 
done by hand. The operation of sawing a block of granite into slabs 
for panels, tables or chimney pieces is a very slow process, the rate of 
progress being about half an inch per day of ten hours. The machines 
employed are few and simple. They are technically called lathes, 
wagons and pendulums or rubbers. The lathes are employed for the 
polishing of columns, the wagons for flat surfaces and the pendulums 
for mouldings and such flat work as is not suitable for the wagons. In 
the lathes the column is placed and supported at each end by points 
upon which it revolves. On the upper surface of the column there are 
laid pieces of iron, segments of the circumference of the column. The 
weight of these pieces of iron lying upon the column, and the constant 
supply by the lathe-attendant of sand and water, emery or putty, ac- 
cording to the state of finish to w r hich the column has been brought, 
constitute the whole operation. While sand is used during the rougher 
state of the process, these irons are bare, but when using emery and 
putty the surface of the iron next to the stone is covered with thick 
flannel. The wagon is a carriage running upon rails, in which the 
pieces of stone to be polished are fixed, having uppermost the surface 
to be operated on. Above this surface there are shafts placed perpen- 
dicularly, on the lower end of which are fixed rings of iron. These 
rings rest upon the stone, and when the shaft revolves they rub the 
surface of the stone. At the same time the wagon travels backwards 
and forwards upon the rails, so as to expose the whole surface of the 



METAT, AND STONE. 415 

stone to the action of the rings. The pendulum is a frame hung upon 
hiuges from the roof of the workshop. To this frame are attached iron 
rods moving in a horizontal direction. In the line upon which these 
rods move, and under them, the stone is firmly placed upon the floor. 
Pieces of iron are then loosely attached to the rods and allowed to rest 
upon the surface of the stone. When the whole is set in motion these 
irons are dragged backward and forward over the surface of the stone, 
and so it is polished. When polishing plain surfaces, such as the 
needle of an obelisk, the pieces of iron are of course flat, but when a 
moulding is to be polished an exact pattern of its form is made and the 
irons cast from that pattern. 

To Mend a Broken Dial. — Plaster of paris, mixed with a medium 
strong solution of gum arabic in water and applied instantly after mix- 
ing, makes a fine white filling and dries quite hard after an hour or 
two. Shave off with a sharp knife and polish with a piece of white 
flannel. Shellac dissolved in strong spirits of ammonia makes a good 
cement for fastening on chips of a dial which have been broken off. 

How to Remove Old Watch Jewels when Set in the Plate. — 
Jewels can be removed from full plates by putting the plate into a 
glass tumbler and pouring on nitric acid. The jewels will become 
loose and after a little time drop out. Wash the jewels well with a 
little soda or ammonia. 

How to Fasten a Ribbon into Gold Mounting's. — Ribbons are 
fastened into metal tips with shellac. Heat the shellac and work it 
into a stick. Then heat the sticks and smear some on the ends of the 
ribbon. The tips should also be heated when the end of the ribbon 
covered with shellac is pushed in. 

To Frost Watch-plates. — Watch-plates are frosted by means of 
fine brass wire scratch brushes, fixed in a lathe and made to revolve at 
great speed, the end of the wire brushes striking the plate, producing 
a beautiful frosty appearance. 

To Cleanse Silverware.— Sodium hyposulphite furnishes the most 
simple and cleanly polishing agent for silverware. It acts quickly, is 
cheap and can be especially recommended for the purpose. A rag or 
brush moistened with saturated solution of the salt cleans in a few 
seconds, without the use of polishing pow T der, strongly oxidized sur- 
faces of silver. 

To Renovate Nickel Watch Movements. — In consequence of 
changes in temperature or other influences, it sometimes happens that 
nickel movements turn yellow or become stained. They can be readily 
renovated as follows: To 50 parts of rectified spirit add 1 part of sul- 
phuric acid. Put the parts to be renovated in this fluid for 10 to 15 
seconds; to allow them to remain longer is injurious. Then dip them 
in clean water, and after thoroughly rinsing off, place them for a short 
time in rectified spirit. Finally, dry in sawdust or with soft linen. 
Nickel movements thus treated become almost like new, and the polish 
is not injured, as would be the case if the parts were treated with the 
leather-file or brush. 



416 METAL AND STONE. 

To Remove Rust from Nickel-Plated Articles.— Oil the articles 
thoroughly, let them stand a few days, and then rnb vigorously with a 
cloth moistened with ammonia. If this method should not produce 
the desired success, moisten the stains alone with dilute hydrochloric 
acid, and rub off immediately. The articles are then washed, and after 
drying polished with tripoli'or some other polishing powder. 

To Clean Old Brass. — To clean old brass, especially small figures, 
mountings, etc., so as to give them the appearance of new, the follow- 
ing process is highly recommended : Into an earthen or glass dish 
pour a sufficient quantity of a mixture of 1 part of nitric acid and i part 
of sulphuric acid to allow of the entire article being dipped into the 
fluid. After remaining in the fluid for a short time the article is taken 
out, quickly washed in cold water, thoroughly dried in sawdust, and 
finally polished with finely powdered Vienna lime. 

To Restore the Lustre of Dead Silver Work, Gilt Clock 
Cases, etc. — Dissolve 1 oz. of cyanide of potassium in 1 quart of pure 
water, empty the solution into a bottle and label it "poison." When 
to be used place the article in an earthen vessel, cover it over with the 
solution, and in five minutes the lustreless appearance will be removed. 
Preserve the fluid for future use. 

Recutting- Files by Electricity. — Files can be recut by cleaning 
them, and placing them in acidulated water between two plates of car- 
bon, and closing the circuit so as to form a real voltaic cell. The 
hydrogen liberated clings to the points of the teeth of the file, protecting 
them from further action, but the cutting action proceeds freely over 
the remainder of the file. This process speedily brings back the teeth 
of an old file to the original shape and dimensions, and does not merely 
sharpen them but practically recuts the file, without necessitating 
either softening or retempering the metal. 

To Renovate Old Files.— Cleanse the file from all foreign matter, 
and then dip it into a solution of 1 part nitric acid, 3 parts sulphuric 
acid, and 7 parts water. The time of immersion will be according to 
the extent the file has been worn and the fineness of the teeth, varying 
from 5 seconds to 5 minutes. On taking it out of the mixture wash iu 
water, then dip in milk of lime; wash off the lime, dry by a gentle 
heat, rub over equal parts of olive oil and turpentine, and finally brush 
over with powdered coke. 

Detection of Iron or Steel. — Aquafortis, applied to the surface 
of steel, produces a black spot; on iron the metal remains clean. The 
slightest vein of iron or steel can readily be detected by this method. 

Simple Method to Ascertain the Quality of Iron or Steel.— 
Good iron is readily heated, is soft under the hammer, and throws out 
few sparks. 

Coarse grain, with bright crystallized fracture or discolored spots, 
indicates cold-short, brittle iron, which works easily when heated, and 
welds well. Cracks on the edge of a bar are indications of hot-short 
iron. A medium, even grain with fibres, denotes good iron. 

A soft, tough iron, if broken gradually, gives long silky fibres of 
leaden-gray hue, which twist together and cohere belore breaking. 



METAL AND STONE. 417 

Badly refined iron gives a short, blackish fibre on fracture. A very 
fine grain denotes hard, steely iron, likely to be cold-short and hard. 

To Detect Alloys in Gilding-. — A solution of chloride of copper 
will show the difference between gilding for which gold has been used 
and gilding with alloys of inferior metals. If the gilding be imitation 
gold, a touch of the solution will give a black mark, copper separating 
out through the zinc in the yellow metal ; with pure metal no discolor- 
ation will occur. The test can also be effected with a solution of 
chloride of gold or nitrate of silver, the first of which will give a brown 
spot, the second a gray or black spot; neither has any effect on gold. 
Common gold goods of 14-karat gold will not change their color with 
nitrate of silver. Leaf-gold is tested by being shaken up in a closed 
bottle with sulphur chloride. Beaten gold will show no alteration, 
while "metal" leaves will grow gradually dark. 

Bending* of Cast-Iron. — A flat-shaped casting weighing 300 lbs. 
was required to be bent in two places in the direction of its length. For 
this purpose the casting was heated on the places to be bent, by two alco- 
hol lamp-flames. After the heating had proceeded to about the temper- 
ature at which hardened steel acquires a straw color, pressure was ex- 
erted by means of a loaded lever upon the upper part of the casting, 
opposite to the flames, and the latter were by degrees directed to 
other portions of the intended bend. The iron yielded to the combined 
effects of heat and pressure thus gradually brought to bear upon it, 
so that the casting actually assumed the bend intended to be produced, 
and which could not be otherwise obtained by planing or other treat- 
ment. The deposits upon the casting produced by the lamps were 
removed with emery cloth. From this experiment it is concluded that 
it is possible to bend cast-iron to a considerable extent, provided it is 
subjected to careful treatment at a very moderate heat and the simul- 
taneous action of a suitable uniform pressure. 

Softening Cast-iron. — Cast-iron, in pieces of moderate size, may 
be softeued by heating to a red heat and plunging into warm water, 
then raising once more to a red heat and cooling very slowly. 

To make a Flange Joint that will not leak or burn out on steam 
pipes, mix 2 parts of white lead and 1 part of red lead to a stiff putty ; 
spread on the flange evenly. 

New Way of Annealing Steel. — Heat the piece as slowly as pos- 
sible, and when at a low red heat put it between two pieces of dry 
board, and screw them up tight in a vise. The steel burns its way 
into the boards and, on coming together around it, they form a prac- 
tically air-tight charcoal bed. When it cools off the steel is apt to be 
found thoroughly annealed. 

Two Ways of Annealing Steel. — It can be heated to a dull, red 
heat, covered with dry, warm sand, and left to cool slowly, or heat 
and cover up in the forge fire, and leave it there until the fire is out 
and all is cold. The other method is to heat the steel red hot; heat 
gradually, let it "soak," as the smiths say, until it is evenly heated, 
then remove it from the fire and take it to some dark place. Let the steel 
cool until you lose sight of the dull red in the dark, then cool off in 
cold water. A good "dark place" may be made by throwing your 



418 METAL AND STONE. 

coat over a barrel, leaving just room enough to look in at the iron. 
This method is called " water anneal," and is based upon the theory 
that steel softens when cooled at a certain temperature. 

Electricity for Tempering- Steel.— Electricity has been success- 
fully applied to tempering watch springs and other forms of spring 
steel, whether in the shape of ribbon or wire. The steel is wound on 
a spool, whence it passes down through a bath of oil. An electric 
current is sent through a wire of such strength as to keep it at the 
proper redness to answer the desired requirements of temper. As the 
heating is not done in contact with the air, but is entirely beneath the 
surface of the oil, there is no trouble from blistering, as in the ordinary 
methods. The final temper is drawn in the same manner, and the wire 
or ribbon is finished by means of rolls. The process is also applied to 
a number of springs besides those for watches, including piano wires. 
In all cases the process can be controlled to a nicety, both as to the 
exact temper and its uniformity through the wire. 

Heating- Steel. — There are three distinct stages or times for heat- 
ing: First, for forging ; second, for hardening; third, for tempering. 

The first requisite for a good heat for forging is a clean fire and 
plenty of fuel, so that jets of hot air will not strike the corners of the 
piece ; next, the fire should be regular, and give a good uniform heat 
to the whole part to be forged. It should be keen enough to heat the 
piece as rapidly as may be, and allow it to be thoroughly heated 
through without being so fierce as to overheat the corners. 

Steel should not be left in the fire any longer than is necessary to 
heat it clear through, as " soaking " in fire is very injurious; and, on 
the other hand, it is necessary that it should be heated through to prevent 
surface cracks, which are caused by the reduced cohesion of the over- 
heated parts which overlie the colder centre of an irregularly heated 
piece. 

By observing these precautions a piece of steel may always be 
heated safely up to even a bright-yellow heat when there is much 
forging to be done on it, and at this heat it will weld well. 

The best and most economical welding flux is clean, crude borax, 
which should be first thoroughly melted and then ground to a fine 
powder. Borax prepared in this way will not froth on the steel, and 
one-half of the usual quantity will do the work as well as the whole 
quantity unmelted. 

After the steel is properly heated it should be forged to shape as 
quickly as possible, and just as the red-heat is leaving the parts 
intended for cutting edges, these parts should be refined by rapid light 
blows, continued until the red disappears. 

For the second stage of heating, for hardening, great care should be 
used ; first, to protect the cutting edges and working parts from heating 
more rapidly than the body of the piece ; next, that the whole part to 
be hardened be heated uniformly through without any part becoming 
visibly hotter than the other. A uniform heat, as low as will give the 
required hardness, is best for hardening. 

Bear in mind that for every variation of heat which is great enough 
to be seen, there will result a variation of grain, which may be observed 
by breaking the piece ; and for every such variation of temperature there 
is a very good chance for a crack to be found. Many a costly tool is 
ruined by inattention to this point. 



METAL AND STONE. 419 

The effect of too high heat is to open the grain ; to make the steel 
coarse. 

The effect of an irregular heat is to cause irregular grain, irregular 
strains and cracks. 

As soon as the piece is properly heated for hardening it should be 
promptly and thoroughly quenched in plenty of the cooling medium, 
water, brine or oil, as the case may be. 

An abundance of the cooling bath, to do the work quickly and uni- 
formly all over, is necessary to good and safe work. 

To harden a large piece safely a running stream should be used. 

Much uneven hardening is caused by the use of too small baths. 

For the third stage of heating, to temper, the first important requisite 
is again uniformity. The next is time. The more slowly the piece is 
brought down to its temper the better and safer is the operation. 

When expensive tools, such as taps, rose-cutters, etc., are to be made, 
it is a wise precaution and one easily taken to try small pieces of the 
steel at different temperatures, so as to find out how low a heat will give 
the necessary hardness. The lowest heat is the best for any steel. 
The test costs nothing, takes very little time and very often saves con- 
siderable loss. 

Etching- Liquid for Steel.— Mix 1 oz. of sulphate of copper, J oz. 
of alum and £ teaspoonful of salt reduced to powder with 1 gill of 
vinegar and 20 drops of nitric acid. This liquid may be used either 
for eating deeply into the metal or for imparting a beautiful frosted 
appearance to the surface, according to the time it is allowed to act. 

Adam Schaefer's Fluid for Hardening' Steel, which serves 
to improve the quality of many varieties of steel, consists princi- 
pally of ordinary resins, linseed oil, glycerine and powdered wood 
charcoal, the ingredients being intimately mixed and the mixture 
heated. The steel at a bright cherry-red heat is dipped in the fluid, 
and, after cooling in it, again heated and subjected to one of the usual 
methods of hardening by water, oil or melted compositions of metal. 
The effect produced by this process is said especially to show itself in 
burnt cast steel, which thereby regains its original qualities, while 
softer varieties of steel acquire the advantages of cast steel. Tools 
made from Bessemer steel, which cannot be hardened in the usual 
manner, may, after passing through the above-described process, be 
used for cutting castings which frequently resist the best tools made of 
tungsten steel. 

To Prevent the Baking of Moulding Sand.— Moulding sand 
consists chiefly of quartz sand and clay, the latter serving as an 
agglutinant for the former. On the proportion of these two essential 
constituents and on the fineness of the sand depends the availability 
of the latter to moulding. The content of clay, on the one hand, must 
not be so large that the sand becomes hard by the slight glowing 
caused by contact with the fluid metal, and, on the other, must be 
sufficiently large to impart to the sand the required coherence after 
moistening and pressing together. The baking of moulding sand is 
decreased by an addition of soot and coal powder and promoted by 
an addition of beer yeast, beer, molasses, rye flour, etc. A content of 
lime is injurious to moulding sand. In many places available mould- 
ing sand is found which need only to be comminuted and sifted to be 



420 METAL AND STONE. 

ready for use. If such natural moulding sand cannot be had, it can be 
prepared by mixing 93 parts of pure quartz sand with 7 parts of clay 
free from lime. Moulding sand which has been used and has partially 
lost its agglutinating power can be restored by mixing with fresh sand. 
Moulding sand should not be stored in the open air, since the finer 
particles of clay are washed out by rain. 

Cores in Heavy Casting's. — When cores run through heavy 
bodies of iron the hot liquid raises the fusible element of the sand to 
such a high temperature that the grains fuse together, so that when the 
casting cleaner tries to get the core out he finds it almost as hard as the 
iron. A good thing to prevent this fusing of the sand is to mix some 
sea-coal or blacking in it, and to give the surfaces of the core a good 
body of black lead or plumbago blacking. This outside coat of black- 
ing will prevent the liquid iron from eating into the surface of the core 
sand, and the sea-coal or blacking mixed in the sand burns away and 
passes off in the form of gas, leaving a porous body between the grains 
of sand, which assists in preventing its fusing. In putting rods in such 
cores as are subjected to high temperature, it is a good plan to coat 
them with two or three thick coats of flour paste, and dry them in an 
oven as the paste is put on ; for by doing this the dried paste burns off 
from the rod and leaves it free to come out of the casting. 

Melting" Zinc. — Zinc is troublesome to cast, and more troublesome 
when small thin moulds are to be cast. Lining the mould with whit- 
ing and water, which must be allowed to thoroughly dry, will often 
cause the metal to fill the mould well. Burning of the zinc (oxidizing) 
may be prevented by covering the metal while in crucible or ladle 
with a layer of common salt or a little muriatic acid, which amounts 
to the same, as a coat of zinc oxide is immediately formed on the sur- 
face of the melted metal, which effectually prevents further oxidation 
from the action of oxygen in the atmosphere. It is an improvement 
to keep a layer of charcoal on top of the zinc or any other soft metal 
which can be melted in a ladie. The coating of oxide forms a protec- 
tion against oxidation to only a certain degree, while the layer of char- 
coal tends to reduce the oxide again to its metallic form. Indeed, it is 
possible to recover lead, tin, zinc and antimony from the " dross" or 
oxide which gathers in the ladle. It is only necessary to melt the 
oxide with charcoal, salt and soda to get it again into useful shape. 
The dross should be powdered ; likewise the salt, charcoal and soda. 
Mix them together and melt. The soda and salt melt into a pasty 
mass, and the carbon unites with the oxygen of the dross, leaving the 
metal free, but burning off the charcoal. The salt and soda act simply 
as flux in reducing the oxides. 

Refining and Reducing Zinc Electrically. — The following pro- 
cesses are proposed by Alexander Watt for refining impure zinc by 
electrolysis, and also for reducing the metal from its ores by electrical 
deposition. 

In the purifying process the zinc is made the anode in a bath con- 
taining an organic acid and is dissolved and deposited upon a cathode. 
Acetic acid is generally used in the process, the ordinary commercial 
acid being mixed with water in the proportion of one to two. The im- 
pure zinc plates are suspended in the bath and the pure zinc is de- 
posited on thin zinc plates or on copper or iron plates coated with 



METAL AND STONE. 421 

plumbago. When the operation is finished the cathode plates are 
washed and melted into ingots. To reduce the ores of zinc, especially 
the carbonate, the minerals are first reduced to a powder and then sub- 
mitted to the action of the acid, being added a little at a time. When 
the zinc is completely dissolved the liquid is allowed to stand, and is 
then drawn off and mixed with water in equal proportions. In electro- 
lyzing this liquid the anode plates are carbon, platinum or some other 
substance not acted on by the acid ; the cathode plates are zinc, car- 
bon, etc. To keep the saturation constant, and to prevent polarization 
from an excess of free acid, Mr. Watt has devised a system of circula- 
tion by which the used-up liquid is restored to its original density in 
special reservoirs, and is used over and over again. In the treatment 
of blende or native sulphate of zinc the ores are first roasted, after 
which they are pulverized and put in acid, as has been described. The 
process is said to be more economical than those now in use, but. it has 
not been tested by experiment on a large scale. 

Refining- Silver by Electrolysis. — Mobius, a German electrician, 
has devised the following simple and inexpensive process for refining 
silver by electrolysis. It is said to be the best adapted for the refining 
of auriferous silver. The principle on which the method is based con- 
sists in using in an ordinary electrolytic bath anodes of an argentif- 
erous matte and a thin plate of pure silver as the cathode. The bath 
consists of a very weak solution of nitric acid, containing about 1 per 
cent, of the acid. The anodes, which are about £ inch thick, with a 
surface of about 13.5 square inches, are placed in muslin bags, which 
retain the gold, platinum, peroxide of lead and similar foreign ma- 
terials contained in the matte. The current used is 150 amperes and 
the potential difference between the plates 1 volt. During the whole 
period of work brushes are kept moving up and down the silver plates, 
which sweep off the silver deposited into troughs put for the purpose 
at the bottom of the bath. These troughs are removed from time to 
time and the silver taken out and sent to the furnace. If the matte 
contains copper this is dissolved by the nitric acid, but is not de- 
posited on the cathode. 

Tempering- Magnets. — A combined process for tempering and 
magnetizing steel bars for magnets is employed by M. Ducoetet. He 
uses a water-tight vessel, at the bottom of which are two soft iron pole 
pieces; the poles of a powerful electro-magnet are placed underneath 
these. The vessel is partly filled with water, and a layer of oil is above 
this. The red-hot bar is passed through these. Its passage first 
through the oil is found to soften the steel without depriving it of its 
power of being magnetized. 

^ Glycerine for Sharpening Edge-tools.— Carpenters and other 
tool-users are now using a mixture of glycerine instead of oil for 
sharpening their edge-tools. Oil, as is well known, thickens and 
smears the stone. The glycerine may be mixed with spirits in greater 
or less proportion, according as the tools to be sharpened are fine or 
coarse. For the average blade 2 parts of glycerine to 1 of spirits will 
suffice. 

To Mend Patterns. — For mending patterns needing temporary 
repairs, or for making additions where but one or two moulds are to be 



422 METAL AND STONE. 

made, the following material will be found very useful : Melt together 
1 lb. beeswax, 1 lb. resin and 1 lb. paraffine wax. It is well to note 
that the beeswax intended is the wax made by the bees and not the 
wax made by the wholesale dealers. When the genuine article is used 
this mixture will be found very useful for making additions to patterns, 
small temporary patterns, and for a variety of purposes in the pat- 
tern-shop. 

For Packing- the Neck of a Retort. — W. Balcker uses an as- 
bestos string and a cement consisting of clay, 2 parts; pipe-clay, 2 ; 
filings free from rust, 2 ; pyrolusite, 1 ; common salt, i, and borax, £. 
The ingredients are thoroughly mixed and triturated with sulphate of 
iron dissolved in water. This cement resists the action of tar oil, 
steam and heat. 

Solvent for Rust. — It is often very difficult, and sometimes impos- 
sible, to remove rust from articles made of iron. Those which are 
most thickly coated are most easily cleaned by being immersed in a 
solution, nearly saturated, of chloride of tin. The length of time 
they remain in this bath is determined by the thickness of the coating 
of rust, 12 to 24 hours being, however, generally sufficient. 

To Remove Rust from Iron. — Dip the iron or steel into a con- 
centrated solution of chloride of tin for about 12 to 24 hours. An ex- 
cess of acid must be guarded against. Take the objects out of the 
bath, rinse with water and then with ammonia and dry quickly. 

To Loosen Rusted Screws. — One of the simplest and readiest ways 
of loosening a rusted screw is to apply heat to the head of the screw. A 
small bar or rod of iron, flat at the end, if reddened in the fire and ap- 
plied for two or three minutes to the head of the rusty screw, will, as 
soon as it heats the screw, render its withdrawal as easy by the screw- 
driver as if the screw had been only recently inserted. As there is a 
kitchen poker in every house, that instrument, if heated at its ex- 
tremity and applied for a few minutes to the head of the screw or 
screws, will do the work of loosening ; an ordinary screw-driver will 
do the rest without causing the least damage, trouble or vexation of 
spirit. 

In all work above the common kind where it is necessary to use 
screws, and particularly in hinge work and mountings, or appliances 
affixed to joinery or furniture work, it is advisable to oil the screws or 
dip their points in grease before driving them. This will render them 
more easy to draw, and it will undoubtedly retard for a longer time the 
action of rusting. 

Rolled Bars Direct from Molten Metal. — This new process of 
rolling bars or rails direct from the molten metal is the invention of 
Edwin Norton and John G. Hodgson, of May wood, 111. Fig. 67 
gives an illustration of the process, together with the principal points 
in the description as filed in the patent office : — 

The process consists in pouring a continuous stream of molten metal 
from a suitable vessel and simultaneously compressing, setting and 
shaping the metal by its contact with chilling and compressing surfaces 
or rolls, which confine or surround the stream on all sides as it passes 
these continuously moving chilling surfaces or rolls. The chilling 
surfaces or rolls which shape, compress and set the metal, and thus 



METAL AND STONE, 



423 



convert the molten stream of metal into a metal bar or rail, travel or 
move at the same surface speed as the velocity of the flowing stream 
of molten metal, so that the molten metal will not dam up or collect 
between the rolls, and so that the molten metal or bar product will 
come in contact with the rolls or chilling surfaces only at a single point, 
so to speak, at a time. 

The metal bars or rails, it will thus be seen, are produced direct from 
the molten metal, and without first casting the metal into an ingot and 
heating and rolling and rerolling it ; and as the molten metal is poured 
in a continuous, solid stream into what may be termed a continuously 
revolving or travelling metal chilling or compressing mould, which 
comes in contact with only one point, or a very limited length of the 
metal stream or bar at a time, and is continuously travelling in the 




,,,,,QQ 

Fig. 67. 



same direction with the stream or bar, point after point in the whole 
length of the metal stream or bar coming successively in contact with 
this travelling or revolving compressing or chilling mould ; the metal 
bars or rails are, of course, produced in continuous lengths, and the 
process or operation is continuous as long as the stream of metal flows. 

In the accompanying figure, A represents the frame of the machine, 
on which is journaled a series of rolls, B, preferably four in number, 
revolving together and having their peripheries shaped or grooved to 
form a passage or way between them to receive the stream of molten 
metal as it flows down from the pouring bowl or nozzle, C. 

The working or meeting faces or peripheries of the rolls, B, are given 
a shape or configuration to form an ordinary railroad rail. They may, 
however, be shaped to give the space or passage any desired cross 
section, and thus produce a bar of any form required. The rolls, B, 



424 METAL AND STONE. 

have beveled faces, which meet or roll against each other and serve as 
stops for the several rolls against each other, so that the space or 
passage for the metal will always be maintained of a uniform size, and 
thus produce the rail or bar of a uniform cross section throughout. The 
rolls, B, are each made hollow and preferably with a central web, and 
the shafts are also made hollow, so that the water or other cooling fluid 
or liquid may be made to circulate through each of the rolls for the 
purpose of keeping them cool or of the desired temperature. The 
hollow shafts are each furnished with a packing or stuffing-box at each 
end, by which they are connected with the inlet and outlet water pipes, 
D D 1 . The pouring bowl or vessel, C, is supported by any suitable 
means above the rolls, B, during the pouring operation, preferably by 
standards, C 1 , furnished with adjusting screws, C 2 . The pouring 
nozzle, C, is preferably furnished with a valve or device, for opening 
and closing the discharge passage. The hollow shafts of the rolls are all 
geared together, so that they revolve or roll together at the same surface 
speed. The gearing employed may be preferably bevel gears, such as in- 
dicated at B 3 . Two of the shafts, B*, are also geared together by spur 
gears i? 4 . E is the driving shaft, having a gear, E 1 , which meshes 
with a gear E 2 , on one of the shafts, B 2 . The pouring bowl or nozzle, 
C, is furnished with a guide or shield, extending down to near the 
meeting point of the rolls. This is designed to prevent the metal from 
splattering at the beginning of the pouring operation. A greater or 
less number of rolls than four may be employed. 

F represents a second series of rolls arranged, preferably, directly 
below the chilling rolls, B, and between which the bar, x, passes as it 
issues from the chilling rolls, B. Eolls F are preferably of the same 
form and construction as the rolls B, being hollow and having the same 
connections for passing water through them, so that they may operate 
as chilling rolls as well as to further roll, compress and finish the rail 
or bar produced. 

G is a curved guide or conveyer consisting preferably of a series of 
rolls or idle pulley-wheels, arranged in a curved path to curve and 
guide the bar as it issues from the rolls, F, to the horizontal conveyer 
or series of rolls, H. Some of the rolls, Bf, are preferably driven and 
operate to further roll or straighten the rail or bar, as well as to convey 
it along or away. The curved guide, G, also affords some slack in the 
rail or bar between the chilling rolls and rolls H H, to compensate for 
difference in speed or slipping. 

Improved Method of Welding 1 . — It is well known that in order 
to weld iron in a durable manner its surface must be free from oxide, 
which formerly could only be effected with a welding heat of 2800° F. 
Such a high temperature is, however, injurious to the quality of the 
iron, and still more so to that of steel, so that many varieties of the 
latter could not be welded in this manner. 

To overcome this difficulty pulverized borax is used, which, however, 
cannot be uniformly distributed over the surface of the iron. Lafitta 
now uses a gauze of very flexible wire, and applies the fluxing agent 
uniformly to both sides of the gauze, or also to paper. For small sur- 
faces it frequently suffices to form a leaf from the agglomerated fluxing 
agent and filings. Instead of covering the two surfaces with powder 
the wire gauze, which consists of the same material as the substances 
to be welded, is placed between them and welded in. The welding 
takes place at a much lower temperature, and the fluxing agent 



METAL AND STONE. 425 

generally volatilizes while the wire gauze melts and unites with the 
surface. 

Electric Welding. — This process, the invention of Prof. Elihu 
Thomson, is a new art; for, unlike the smith, who is confined to iron, 
steel, and platinum, it can weld any two pieces of the same metal or 
alloy, ranging from the most refractory metals to the alloy which fuses 
at 162° F. It will join dissimilar metals when the welding point of one 
is not too far in excess of the fusion point of the other. 

The Apparatus. — The electricity is generated by one of two methods. 
In the direct system the dynamo is contained in the machine below the 
clamps, and the armature contains two windings; the one being a fine 
winding, which is in series with the field-magnet coils, and the other 
winding being merely a bar of copper in the form of a letter U, or less 
than a single coil. This bar being of a very low resistance, the maxi- 
mum current is sufficient for welding purposes, and the terminals are 
connected directly with the copper clamps. Alternating currents are 
generated in this machine, and used for welding, in order to avoid 
commutators, which are necessary in direct-current machines. It 
should be remembered that in all dynamos the electricity is generated 
in alternate currents, and that these currents are in proper turn fed to 
brushes of opposite polarity, and thus rendered continuous. In an 
alternating-current dynamo the electricity is conducted from the arma- 
ture to rings instead of to a commutator, and it is thus better suited for 
large currents, and some forms of the apparatus do not require rings, 
or any moving contacts. There is no electrical reason why an alter- 
nating curreut should be used except the convenience of its manipula- 
tion. In fact, the continuous current applied by secondary batteries 
has been used for this purpose. 

Another form of apparatus, termed the indirect system, is more con- 
veniently suited for large work, or in places where a number of welding 
machines are operated by the current from a single dynamo. The weld- 
ing current is produced by conversion of the comparatively high-tension 
current by means of an inverted induction coil, termed a transformer. 
The primary circuit from the dynamo is conducted through many turns 
of fine wire around a soft iron ring, and upon this same ring is a single 
turn of a large copper bar, in Which the welding current is produced by 
inductive effect. These currents receive 4,000 to 15,000 alternations per 
minute. The welding currents are not changed suddenly or by switches, 
as such manipulation would not be desirable or even practicable with 
the great currents used; but in the direct welding machine, a set of 
resistance coils is placed in the fine circuit which passes around the field 
magnets, and by interposing more or less of the resistance coils in this 
circuit, the strength of the magnets is diminished or increased, and the 
welding current altered accordingly. 

With the indirect machine, the amount of the secondary or welding 
current is controlled by varying the current in the primary coil by 
means of a kicking coil, or by a variable shunt to the field coil, and in 
other ways. 

In either case the apparatus is simple, and in full and complete con- 
trol at will of the operator by movement of a lever, and this action 
controls the heat. 

The Process. — In the electric welding process, the two pieces to be 
joined are secured in firm end contact by a pair of adjustable copper 
clamps, which are placed upon the top of the apparatus. An electric 
29 



426 METAL AND STONE. 

current of large volume is passed through the pieces, and the contact 
between them being of less conductivity than the homogeneous metal, 
heating ensues at this place, as the juncture is brought to the proper 
temperature by the gradual motion of the regulating lever, and as the 
metal softens the clamps are pressed towards each other to insure a con- 
tinuous metallic union across the bar. 

The weld begins at the centre and proceeds radially towards the 
surface, as the temperature becomes greater than at the interior. The 
heating is further increased by the fact that the resistance of the hot 
metal is greater than that of cold metal. 

The enormous electric currents used in this welding process some- 
times reach 50,000 amperes, but with an electro-motive force of half a 
volt, and therefore not capable of giving any sensation to a person. 

It would be injudicious to offer any premium upon ignorance, but 
the operation of electric welding is one of the simplest of'mechanical 
processes, requiring but little skill on the part of the operator in com- 
parison with that exact training of hand and eye and long experience 
necessary for ordinary welding. The operator must understand the 
color of the proper welding heat of the metal under treatment, hut this 
is readily learned. The work is not manipulated during the process, 
except when it is desired to reduce the burr at the weld, and is at all 
times under observation, and its heat subject to entire control by means 
of a lever which graduates the strength of the current. 

The dynamo generating the electricity is self-regulating, and requires 
no attention except for lubrication. 

There is no unnecessary waste of fuel, the heating being local, and 
does not extend far from the weld ; cotton-covered wire one-fourth of 
an inch in diameter can be welded without searing the insulation over 
three-fourths of an inch from the weld. 

The time for making a weld varies from a fraction of a second to 
about two minutes, according to the work; although nothing over two 
inches diameter has yet been welded, but larger machines are in process 
of construction. 

It is not necessary to provide power fully equal to the maximum de- 
mand, as the time is so short that the momentum of a flywheel will 
serve the same purpose as in a drop press, and give up the surplus 
energy required. 

The power is inversely proportional to the time, and appears to be 
about proportional to 2.3 power of the diameter in inches, with a slight 
variation of quick work caused by differences in the rates of the thermal 
conductivity of the material. 

Applications. — The process is far cheaper than that of hand weld- 
ing, and also extends to other methods of manufacture, but the com- 
parative expense differs according to the previous conditions in every 
place where it has thus far been applied. 

Its applications in practical work thus far have been chiefly con- 
fined to butt- welding for many purposes, such as continuous wire work, 
carriage work, axles and tires, cotton bale ties, barrel hoops and wire 
cables and many miscellaneous purposes. Axes are made of drop 
forgings, joining the tool steel edge to a mild steel poll ; bars are 
heated in the middle and upset, forming collars, and pipes are joined 
together — a matter of great value in ice machines. The list might be 
continued to greater length, but this indicates the range of its practical 
uses at this early day. 



METAL AND STONE, 



427 



Strength of Electric Welds. — The value of the process, for most 
purposes, independent of any scientific interest or mechanical in- 
genuity shown in the apparatus, must be that of the resistance of the 
welds under tensile stress. 

It will be readily understood, however, that as this process ac- 
complishes many things hitherto impossible, aside from any question 
of ultimate strength, it is fitted for applications in many constructions 
where it saves labor and time, provided only that the joints be in all 
cases sufficiently good for the purpose for which the article is designed. 
A large field thus opens up in the execution of ornamental design in 
metal work, where it will supplant screws, rivets or solder for fasten- 
ings, and in other evident applications. 

Under the name "electrohephestos" MM.de Bernadosand Olszewsky 
have patented a new method of electrically welding metals, especially 
parts of iron. This method, according to " Dingler's Polytechnical 
Journal," is in a certain sense a complement of Prof. Thomson's pro- 
cess. While the latter brings the pieces of metal to be joined to a 
welding heat and unites them by the use of pressure, thus forming an 
actual weld, Bernados and Olszewsky melt the two metals at their 
juncture, whereby a soldering together is effected. 

Extensive experiments with Bernados and Olszewsky's electric 
welding apparatus have recently been made at Tegel, near Berlin. 
The process is described as follows : The joint of the two metals which 
are to be welded together is connected with the negative pole of a dy- 
namo or other source of supply, the positive pole of which is formed 
by a carbon pencil. Under the intense heat of the arc the most refrac- 
tory metals melt almost instantaneously at their junction and fuse to- 
gether. But the action is purely local, like that of a blow-pipe, and 
only those parts upon which the arc plays directly are attacked, the 
adjoining portions undergoing little change, and the fused mass solidi- 
fies and cools very quickly. The slightness of the chemical change 
produced by the action of the arc at the joint is shown by the ap- 
pended table : 





Steel. 


Iron. 


Composition of 
material. 


Before 
welding. 


After 
welding. 


Before 
welding. 


After 
welding. 


Carbon 


0.48 
0.04 
0.50 
0.04 
0.08 
98.86 


0.25 

0.25 

0.04 

0.07 

99.30 


0.34 

0.50 
0.14 
0.12 

98.90 


0.14 


Silicon 




Manganese 


0.23 


Sulphur 


0.09 




0.11 




99.43 







The material requires little or no preparation. Even a pretty thick 
layer of oxide will be reduced and drop ofF, while smaller quantities 
of oxide unite to form a slag with the sandy clay frequently added as 
flux. This slag prevents the oxidation of* the metals while cooling. 



428 METAL AND STONE. 

No other fluxes are required. The operations can also be carried on 
under water, although the gases and steam generated cause trouble. 
Nevertheless an apparatus has been constructed to facilitate such work 
by forcing the water away from the parts to be treated by means of 
compressed air. One of the chief advantages claimed for the new pro- 
cess appears to be that the arc is brought to the work, and not the work 
taken to the arc, which would mean transformers, crucibles or other 
apparatus. Size is hence a question of secondary importance, and un- 
wieldy pieces may be dealt with, although for soldering work of the 
ordinary kind a special operating table is employed as more convenient. 

In order to obtain the various strengths of current and E. M. F. ne- 
cessary when operating upon pieces of different size storage batteries 
are employed which have been especially constructed for this purpose 
by M. de Bernados. The complete cell, Fig. 68, weighs 35 lbs. and con- 
tains nine lead plates, Fig. 69, all of the same kind, four of them posi- 
tive and five negative, with 1^ square yards of total surface. Each 
plate consists of a frame cast of pure lead 6 by 71 inches surface and 
0.2 inch thick. The interior of the frame is filled with strips of thin 
lead, alternately straight and corrugated, Figs. 70 and 71, soldered 
into their places ; the latter strips are bent in such a manner as to 
facilitate upward currents in the liquid. The cells have an interior 
resistance of 0.002 ohm and give 2.5 volts when continually charged 
while at work. Fifty to seventy of these cells are joined in a battery ; 
several batteries, three for instance, are grouped in parallel and are 
continually charged by a shunt dynamo. The diagram, Fig. 72, ex- 
plains the ordinary connections. The shunt dynamo charges the 
fifty accumulator cells in series ; a voltmeter and an amperemeter are 
inserted at Fand A. From the positive terminal of every fifth cell a 
wire leads to a plug switch-board V; from Uthe current passes through 
a variable resistance W, and from thence through a flexible cable to 
the carbon-holder ^and the carbon pencil K. The operator manipu- 
lates this carbon-holder Z t the metal to be fused placed upon the table 
P being joined directly to the negative terminal of the battery. By 
inserting the ping in the switch-board ?7the operator may obtain cur- 
rents from five cells, and so on to ten times five cells. If considerable 
masses of metal are to be dealt with, currents of considerable strength 
are needed. These are obtained by grouping the batteries of certain 
sets of cells in parallel. Supposing the dynamo gives a current of 175 
volts and 120 amperes, that there is a battery of seventy cells coupled 
in series and that it is desired to solder two boiler plates of § inch 
thickness. The carbon-holder is connected with the positive terminals 
of the fortieth cells of three groups. The carbon is allowed to touch 
for a fraction of a second, and is taken off immediately, so that be- 
tween the plates and the carbon pencil an arc of a few millimetres 
length is formed. The iron melts like wax, but the action seems too 
powerful, the molten metal hissing and evaporating distinctly. In 
such a case one of the three parallel groups is cut out. Should the ac- 
tion then be too sluggish, one or more parallel groups is added. 
Sometimes the arc proves too small or extinguishes frequently ; in such 
cases the number of cells in each group has to be increased. 

The carbon holder (Fig. 73) resembles a pair of scissors, and consists 
of two copper bars having a round hole near the end, in which the 
pencil is held firmly, either by the friction of the parts or by means of 
a little wedge, as shown in the illustration. 

One of the most important applications of the new process is for 




(429) 



430 METAL AND STONE. 

welding plates of all thicknesses. For the very finest sheets of 1 milli- 
metre and less, the Electro-Hephestos Company prefer a modification 
of Prof. Thomson's process. But all stronger plates up to several cen- 
timetres thickness are subjected to the arc. 

To effect this with ordinary plates, the edges are feathered as in Fig. 
74, or Fig. 75, and pressed together. The furrows are filled with little 
pieces of the same material, and the arc is then applied, while fresh 
pieces are added until the furrow is completely filled with the molten 
mass. The plates are immediately afterwards finished under the ham- 
mer. In making iron welds the small pieces for filling are always of 
wrought-iron. With iron a flux of clay sand is recommended ; with 
copper, borax or sal-ammoniac. The arrangement (Fig. 75) secures 
great strength, but is of course only applicable when the lower surface 
of the metal can be got at. When the plates are joined on their lower 
surfaces, M. de Bernados suggests a powerful electro-magnet placed as 
indicated in Fig. 76 to prevent the liquid metal (provided the material 
be para-magnetic) from flowing off. The apparatus shown in Fig. 77 
looks more practical ; it is intended to be employed when making 
vertical seams. The pincers 8' and S" carry two pieces of graphite or 
coke, C and C", forming a sort of chamber at the spot where the 
fusion is to be carried on. As soon as the mass has hardened sufficiently 
the carbon pieces are pushed further up. Carbon pieces are frequently 
employed to prevent the flowing off of the fused material. Figs. 78 to 
82 exemplify other ways of joining plates in cases where a perfectly 
straight surface is not insisted upon ; for thinner plates the method, 
Fig. 16, seems to offer particular advantages ; for two one-fifth-inch 
plates a seam of a yard length can be made in seven minutes. When 
plates are to be joined at an angle the process is, of course, exceedingly 
simple. 

This process also permits of the welding of dissimilar metals, so that 
iron and copper, tin, zinc, steel, cast-iron, etc., can be united. 

Manufacture of Wire. — Strong fine-grained iron produced in the 
finery process is best adapted for the manufacture of wire, but since 
the improvements in the puddling process puddled iron is likewise em- 
ployed. The iron is first passed through wire-rolls. On account of the 
rapid cooling off to which the thin iron is exposed, the grooves of 
these roily must stretch very powerfully, and, therefore, they are alter- 

<2> O 0> O°0o o<>o-o<« 

Fig. 83. 

nately given the form of squares and ovals. Fig. 83 represents the 
entire series of grooves of a wire-roll. After each passage through the 
roll the iron is turned 90°. Fig. 84 shows the construction of an oval 
groove. The width of the groove b is the diagonal of a square, from 
the corners of which are described the two arcs which terminate the 
oval groove. Then is b = 1.414 r, and h = 0.5858 r. 

In this manner the diameter of the iron is usually reduced to 4.5 to 6 
millimetres (0.177 to 0.236 inch), and exceptionally even to 2 milli- 
metres (0.079 inch). In the latter case the product is frequently 
directly used under the name of rolled wire. 



METAL AND STONE, 



431 



The rolls have a length of 0.4 to 0.6 metre (1.31 to 1.96 feet), a 
diameter of 0.2 to 0.3 meter (0.65 to 0.98 foot), and make at least 100 
revolutions per minute, though sometimes 220 to 250 and even 300 to 
500. Three or six pairs cff rolls are generally arranged alongside 
of each other, the iron being usually in two or three grooves of the rolls 
at the same time. On coming from the last groove the wire rod is 
wound upon a reel and freed from adhering scale by pickling and 
scouring. 




For the first purpose it is placed in heated dilute sulphuric acid 
(1 volume acid to 100 water), and for the latter, together with coarse 
sand and water, in a revolving drum. 

The cleansed wire-rod is then drawn out to finer dimensions upon 
the draw-bench. The latter consists of a revolving drum, to which one 
pointed end of the wire is fastened after it has been passed through the 
corresponding groove of the draw-plate, which is a steeled iron plate 
provided with conical holes. By the revolution of the drum the wire- 
rod winding off from the reel is drawn through the draw-iron, re- 
duced to the smallest diameter and correspondingly drawn out in 
length. 

Fig. 85 represents a drawing mill ; A being the reel, B the 
draw-iron, and C the drum. The reel around which the wire-rod 
or already drawn wire is spirally wrapped revolves freely in drawing. 
The draw-plate b is secured in a frame; the fine, hatched portion con- 
sists of steel. The drum is provided with a small plyer, into which is 
secured the end of the wire, drawn through the draw-plate by the 
hand. The shaft / with the disk i revolves constantly ; the drum,"how- 
ever, stands still when empty. To set it again in motion it is lifted up 
by the treadle /, the hook o catching and carrying it along. When 
the wire c, which winds up spirally, has entirely passed through the 



432 



METAL AND STONE. 



draw-plate, the tension ceases, and the drum falling from the hook o is 
liberated, and comes to a standstill without the assistance of the 
operator. 

In consequence of the displacement of the iron crystals, the wire in 
drawing becomes hard and brittle, and, therefore, must from time to 




Fig. 85. 



time be made ductile by annealing. This is done in iron pots, heated 
from the outside by a flame playing around them. Up to 1 millimetre 
diameter annealing usually takes place after every second or third 
draw; with thicker iron, however, after the second draw. With a 
height of 3 feet 3.37 inches and a diameter of 28.34 inches, an anneal- 
ing pot holds 40 to 50 coils of wire. 

Though the annealing pots are closed air-tight, the surface of wire is 
oxidized by the inclosed air and must be cleansed before again passing 
through the draw-plate. The ferrous oxide is removed by dilute 
sulphuric acid, and the wire after washing immersed in milk of lime, 
in order to neutralize any remnant of acid. 

Before the final passage through the draw-plate, the wire is conducted 
through a slightly acid pickle of cupric sulphate (blue vitriol), con- 
sisting of 5 parts by weight of sulphuric acid, 3 of cupric sulphate, and 
150 of water, whereby it acquires a bright copper-color surface, or, 
when the iron color is to be retained, through beer yeast, putrefying 
urine, or similar fluids which are sometimes covered with a layer of oil. 
Frequently the wire is also passed in front and behind the draw-plate 
over a sponge saturated with oil. 

Sometimes the drum holding the wire runs in a paste of rape oil and 
flour slightly acidulated with sulphuric acid-; repeated coppering is 
also frequently resorted to between the drawings. 

For wire with figured cross-section, for instance, three-cornered, etc., 
a corresponding shape is given to the grooves of the draw-iron. 

The loss by each annealing amounts to about 2 per cent. The product 
from 100 lbs. of welded iron amounts to 90 or 92 lbs. of rolled wire, 
and from 100 lbs. of rolled wire to 85 or 90 lbs. of drawn wire. 



METAL AND STONE. 433 

To succeed in drawing iron or steel wire, it is of the utmost impor- 
tance to have thorough lubrication, as a lack of it would cause abrasion 
of the wire or of the walls of the tapering holes in the draw-plate, and 
quickly put an end to the operation. 

In drawing coarse or large sizes of wire, say i% inch diameter, the 
pressure upon the sides of the tapering hole, where the wire comes in 
contact with the die, is so great that an ordinary lubricant is squeezed 
out when the usual reductions in size are made and abrasion takes place. 
In order to meet this difficulty, and secure proper lubrication, it has 
been a common practice for years to apply a paste made of rye or 
wheaten flour or lime to the surface of the wire to he drawn, and when 
the paste is dry to smear the wire with tallow or grease; the wire is 
then ready to be drawn, the dried paste serving to prevent the lubricant 
from being pressed out in the process. F. Vogel recommends the fol- 
lowing preparation: Melt a certain quantity of lard or similar fat, and 
cool it off to 122° to 140° F. Then add, with constant stirring, 20 to 40 
per cent, of 60 to 66 per cent, sulphuric acid until the mass has acquired 
the consistency of soft soap. Now add, with constant stirring, water, 
until the mixture is completely dissolved. By the addition of the sul- 
phuric acid as well as of the water the mixture becomes again heated, 
and provision for sufficient cooling must therefore be made. The 
application of this preparation is claimed to allow of the wire being 
drawn through the draw-plate with such ease that it requires annealing 
once or twice less than when drawn by the ordinary method. It is 
further claimed that the draw-plates are subjected to less wear, and 
the wire acquires greater lustre and does not rust as readily. 

Some years since, when Bessemer metal came largely into use as a 
material for wire, Charles H. Morgan, of Worcester, Mass., found that 
its drawing required so much more power than iron wire that he was 
led to institute a series of trials to ascertain the difference in power re- 
quired. It was found that Bessemer wire required from 100 to 200 per 
cent, more power to make the same reduction in sizes than soft iron 
wire, the difference depending on the amount of carbon and other 
chemical constituents. 

The failure of the coatings in common use in drawing Bessemer 
wire led to the inquiry : Is there not some coating that will endure this 
increased pressure? and trials were made at the works of the Washburn 
& Moen Manufacturing Company, at Worcester, Mass., to ascertain if 
something could not be found which, in combination of the flour or lime 
paste, would adhere with sufficient tenacity. While two young men 
were making, with discouraging results, trials of various substances to 
modify the lime coating, one of them said to the other: "If I wanted 
to make whitewash stick, I would put some salt in it; let us try it." 
Whereupon salt was used and found to make the whitewash stick, but 
it was also found that unless the wash was quickly dried on the wire 
and kept dry, the wire would be corroded with rust. Soon after 
it occurred to Mr. Charles H. Morgan to use a hot solution of lime 
and salt, and it was found that, by using the solution at a boiling 
temperature, the water was quickly thrown off when the wire was 
taken from the bath, and it was only necessary to keep the wire in a 
warm, dry place till it was drawn. Salt coating, whether combined 
with lime or otherwise, has been found to resist any pressure that steel 
wire of the highest tensile strength makes, when being drawn, upon 
the inner surface of the die. 



434 



METAL AND STONE. 













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438 METAL AND STONE. 

How to Fish Wire. — Punch a hole through the plastering at the 
required position, being careful that there is no studding at that place. 
Use a brad awl and cut the hole large enough to set in the push-button 
plate. With a short length of small brass spring wire push through 
the opening a few inches of No. 19 double jack chain, such as is used 
for general fishing purposes, first having connected the end of the chain 
with a piece of heavy linen thread. 

Run out the thread between the laths and outside wall until the 
chain touches the floor beneath ; move the thread and locate the chain 
by the sound. Bore a hole through the base board or floor, as the case 
may be, toward the chain. Use a two or three-foot German twist 
gimlet. With a small brass spring wire, bent at the end in the shape 
of a hook, fish for the chain and draw it out. 

At the other end of the thread attach the wire and draw it through 
with the thread. Passing under the floor, bore a second hole through 
the floor as near the other as possible. Run into this a piece of snake 
or fishing wire with a hook at the end until it comes to an obstruction. 
Locate the obstruction by sound. 

In running wires under the flooring, first carefully examine all parts 
and find the direction in which the beams aud timbers run, and run 
the wires parallel with these. After locating the ends of the fishing 
wire see if the obstruction is a timber; if so, find the centre and bore 
from the middle diagonally through it in the direction of the fishing 
wire. 

Drop the jack-chain and thread through the hole, fish for it and 
draw it through hole No. 2, attach the insulated wire and draw it back. 
Starting at hole No. 3 bore hole No. 4 diagonally through the timber 
in the direction in which the wire is to be run, making holes No. 3 and 
4 form an inverted V through the timber. Run the fishing wire 
through hole No. 4 until it meets an obstruction. 

If at the end of the room, bore through the floor, drop the chain, 
fish it out, attach wire and draw it home. Putty up the holes after 
having done with them ; or in case of hard finish, plug them up with 
wood. In lightly built houses it is often found easier to take off the 
molding above the base board and run the wire under it. In such 
cases care should be taken to break off the old nails, as any attempt to 
drive them out would cause a bad break. 

In closets and around chimneys it is usually found easy to work. A 
mouse or lead- weight attached to a string may often be dropped from 
the attic to the cellar-ceiling through the space outside the chimney. 
It is well before starting on a job to carefully examine the whole house 
and find the easiest places to run in. 

Sawing- Stone by Helicoidal Wire Rope. — In place of the or- 
dinary method of sawing stone, a new plan of cutting by means of 
wire-cord has been adopted. While retaining sand as the cutting 
agent, M. Panlin Gay, of Marseilles, has succeeded in applying it by 
mechanical means, and as continuously as the sand blast and band 
saw, with both of which appliances his system — that of the "helicoidal 
wire-cord" — has considerable analogy. 

An engine puts in motion a continuous wire cord (varying from i& to 
i& inch in diameter, according to the work) composed of three mild 
steel wires twisted at a certain pitch, that found to give the best results 
in practice at a speed of 15 to 17 feet per second, the higher speed 
being adopted for the smaller diameter. 



METAL AND STONE. 439 

Instead of the stone being brought to the saw, the wire cord, which 
may be of indefinite length, is led to the stone, being guided by- 
grooved pulleys, mounted on bearings with universal joint, which per- 
mits of their adapting themselves to any change of direction. The 
same cord, which is kept at uniform tension by a weighted truck on an 
inclined plane, may act upon any number of blocks, provided sufficient 
space be given them to allow for cooling. 

The pulleys are mounted in standards, are fed down by endless 
screws rotated automatically if the stone be uniform, but preferably by 
hand if there is reason to suspect irregularities in its texture. Sand 
and water are allowed to flow freely into the cuts, the sand carried along 
by the cord in the spiral interstices between the wires causing a uniform 
attrition of the stone. The twist of the cord causes it, while travelling, 
to return upon itself, and thus become evenly worn. A cord of average 
length, say 150 yards, will cut about 70 feet deep in blocks 15 feet long, 
or produce 490 square feet of sawn surface before being worn out, when 
it may be used for fencing. 

The sand must be sharp, and not used more than three times. The 
nature of the sand is determined by the hardness of the stone ; thus 
quartz sand will cut granite and porphyry, which it has hitherto been 
found impossible to saw, or, indeed, cut in any other way than by pick 
and chisel. An hourly advance of 1 inch in granite or porphyry and 
4 inches in marble is regularly obtained in blocks 15 or 16 feet long. 

Not merely does the helicoidal cord saw blocks of stone, but it even 
cuts them out of the solid rock in the quarry. To do this, it is neces- 
sary to sink shafts of 2 feet or 2 feet 6 inches in diameter in order to 
introduce the pulley-carriers. If there be a free side to start from, one 
shaft is sufficient for a triangular block ; but for a quadrangular one, 
which is preferable, two shafts are necessary. They are bored by a 
mechanical perforator, consisting of a hollow-plate iron cylinder, hav- 
ing at its lower end a slightly thicker collar, which acts with sand 
water in the latest development of the invention. The cylinder is made 
to revolve at a speed of 140 revolutions a minute, by means of a tele- 
dynamic cable, advancing in marble about an inch per hour. An an- 
nular space is cut in the rock, leaving a core which may be utilized as 
a column. The diameter of the shaftway depends upon the diameter 
of columns most in demand, provided a sufficient number be sunk, and 
the intervening angles broken down, so as to afford sufficient room 
for the pulley-carrier. 

In the case of stratified rocks, the shaft-cuts are carried down to a 
natural parting; but in unstratified rocks, a nearly horizontal cut may 
be made with the cord, sufficient inclination being given to insure the 
flow of sand and water to the bottom of the cut. 

The system is employed at granite and marble quarries in France, 
Germany, Spain, Italy, Algeria, Tunis, and other countries, where it is 
said to be giving satisfactory and economical results. 



Hints for Preserving- Tools. — The wooden parts of tools, such as 
stocks of planes and the handles of chisels, are often made to have a 
nice appearance by French polishing, but this adds nothing to their 
durability. A much better plan is to let them soak in linseed oil for a 
week, and then rub them with a cloth for a few minutes every day for 
a week or two. This produces a beautiful surface, and at the same 
time exerts a solidifying and preservative action on the wood. 



440 METAL AND STONE. 

Iron Parts.— 7. Rust Preventives. — 1. Caoutchouc oil is said to have 
proved efficient in preventing rust and to have been used by the German 
army. It only requires to be spread with a piece of flannel in a very 
thin layer over the metallic surface and allowed to dry up. Such 
coating will afford security against all atmospheric influences, and will 
not show any cracks under the microscope after a year's standing. To 
remove it, the article has simply to be treated with caoutchouc oil 
again, and washed after 12 to 24 hours. 

2. A solution of India rubber in benzine has been used for years as a 
coating for steel, iron, and lead, and has been found a simple means of 
keeping them from oxidizing. It can easily be applied with a brush, 
and as easily rubbed off. It should be made about the consistency of 
cream. 

3. All steel articles can be perfectly preserved from rust by putting a 
lump of freshly burnt lime in the drawer or case in which they are 
kept. If the things are to be moved, as a gun in its case, for instance, 
put the lime in a muslin bag. This is especially valuable for speci- 
mens of iron when fractured, for in a moderately dry place the lime 
will not need renewing for many years, as it is capable of absorbing a 
large amount of moisture. Articles in use should be placed in a box 
nearly filled with thoroughly slaked lime. Before using them rub 
well with a woolen rag. 

4. The following mixture forms an excellent brown coating for pre- 
serving iron and steel from rust: Dissolve two parts of crystallized iron 
chloride, 2 antimony chloride, and 1 tannin in 4 of water, and apply 
with sponge or rag and let dry. Then another coat of paint is applied, 
and again another, if necessary, until the color becomes as dark as 
desired. When dry it is washed with water, allowed to dry again, and 
the surface polished with boiling linseed oil. The antimony chloride 
must be as nearly neutral as possible. 

5. To keep tools from rusting, dissolve \ oz. of camphor in 1 lb. 
melted lard; take off the scum, and mix in as much fine graphite as 
will give it an iron color. Clean the tools and smear with this mix- 
ture. After 24 hours rub clean with a soft linen cloth. The tools will 
keep clean for months under ordinary circumstances. 

6. Put 1 quart freshly slaked lime, £ lb. of soft soap in a bucket, and 
sufficient water to cover the articles ; put in the tools as soon as possible 
after use, and wipe them next morning or let them remain until 
wanted. 

7. Soft soap T with half its weight of pearl ash ; 1 oz. of the mixture in 
1 gallon boiling water is much in use in engineers' shops in the drip- 
cans used for turning long articles bright in wrought-iron and steel. 
The work, though constantly moist, does not rust, and bright nuts are 
immersed in it for days till wanted, and retain their polish. 

8. Melt slowly together 6 or 8 ozs. of lard to 1 oz. resin, stirring 
until cool ; when it is semi-fluid it is ready for use. If too thick, it 
may be further let down by coal-oil or benzine. Rubbed on bright 
surfaces never so thinly it preserves the polish effectually, and may be 
readily rubbed off. 

9. To protect metal from oxidization — for instance, polished iron and 
steel — it is requisite to exclude the air and moisture from the actual 
metallic surface; therefore, polished tools are usually kept in wrap- 
pings of oil-cloth and brown paper, and thus protected they will pre- 
serve a spotless face for an unlimited time. When these metals come 
to be of necessity exposed, in being converted to use, it is necessary to 



SOLDERS AND SOLDERING. 441 

protect them by means of some permanent dressing, and boiled linseed 
oil, which forms a lasting covering, as it dries on, is one of the best 
preservatives, if not the best. But, in order to give it body, it should 
be thickened by the addition of some pigment, and the very best, 
because the most congenial pigment, is the ground oxide of the same 
metal ; or, in plain words, rusted iron reduced to an impalpable powder, 
for the dressing of iron and steel, which thus forms the pigment of 
oxide paint. 

10. Slake a piece of quicklime with just enough water to cause it to 
crumble in a covered pot, and, while hot, add tallow to it and work 
into a paste, and use this to cover over bright work ; it can be easily 
wiped off. 

11. Olmstead's varnish is made by melting 2 ozs. resin in 1 lb. of 
fresh, sweet lard, melting the resin first and then adding the lard and 
mixing thoroughly. This is applied to the metal, which should be 
warm, if possible, and perfectly clean ; it is afterwards rubbed off. This 
has been well proved and tested for many years, and is particularly well 
suited for Danish and Russian iron surfaces, which a slight rust is apt 
to injure very seriously. 

II. Rust Removers. — 1. Cover the metal with sweet oil, well rub in, 
and allow to stand for 48 hours; smear with oil applied freely with a 
feather or a piece of cotton wool after rubbing the steel. Then rub 
with unslaked lime reduced to as fine a powder as possible. 

2. Immerse the article to be cleansed for a few minutes, until all the 
dirt and rust are taken off, in a strong solution of potassium cyanide, 
say about i oz. in a wine-glass of water ; take it out and clean it with a 
toothbrush, with some paste composed of potassium cyanide, castile 
soap, whiting, and water mixed into a paste of about the consistency 
of cream. 



SOLDERS AND SOLDERING. 

Composition of Solders. — An important particular in the prepa- 
ration of solders is that they should be well stirred before pouring, 
preferably with a piece of green wood, and the surface of the molten 
metal exposed as little as possible to the air, so that dross (oxide) shall 
not form on the surface. A few knobs of charcoal on the molten metal 
will, to a very great extent, prevent the formation of dross. 

Examining the soft solders in the following table, we see that plum- 
bers' solder melts at 440° F., that is to say, at a lower melting point than 
the metal (lead pipe) for soldering which it is used. Further it is 
largely composed of lead. It thus fulfils both requirements of a 
good "solder. Tinmen's solder melts at 320° F. It is used for sold- 
ering tin plate, which, remember, is iron coated with tin. Tin melts 
at 452° F., a higher temperature than that of its solder. Again the 
conditions of a good solder are fulfilled. Tinmen's solder is also used 
for soft soldering copper, because an alloy of lead and tin will readily 
coat copper, as also readily alloy with it. 
30 



442 



SOLDERS AND SOLDERING, 





Table op Solders. 
Soft Solders. 


- 




Lead. 


Tin. 


Melting 
p't. Fah.° 


Uses. 


Plumbers' solder.... 

Coarse solder 

Fine solder 

Fine solder 


2 
3 
1 

1 

1 

1 
1 


1 
1 

2 

11 

3 

1 
1 


440° 

482° 
340° 

335° 

356° 
320° 
203° 


Joining lead pipe. 

Blowpipe or gasfitters' 
solder, sometimes used 
by tinmen. 

First-class tinmen's sol- 


Very fine solder 

Very fusible solder. 
Very fusible solder. 


der ; used also for sol- 
dering zinc and metal 
wheels, floats, etc., of 
wet gas meters. 

Ordinary tinmen's solder 
Pewterers' solder. 


Hard Solders. 




Copper 


Zinc. 


Silver. 


Uses. 


Spelter, hardest 

Spelter, hard 


2 

n 
i 

2 

1 
1 

1 


1 

1 

1 

2 










0J 

4 

1 

2 


For iron work, gun- 
metal, etc. 
For copper and iron. 
For ordinary brass work. 
For finer kinds of brass 




Spelter, finer 


Silver solder 


work. 
Hardest, but makes very 

neat joints. 
Makes a sound joint and 

will not burn. 
For general use. 


Silver, hard 







Cold Solder. — An alloy useful when metals are to be soldered to- 
gether at a low temperature can be made as follows : Copper in a fine 
state of division is obtained by precipitating with zinc from a solution 
of sulphate of copper. From 20 to 30 parts of this, according to the 
hardness required, are mixed in a cast-iron or porcelain mortar with 
concentrated sulphuric acid, to which is finally added 70 parts of mer- 
cury, and the whole triturated with the pestle. The amalgam thus 
formed is thoroughly washed with water to remove the sulphuric acid, 
after which it is left untouched for from 10 to 12 hours, at the end of 
which it is hard enough to scratch lead. To use the alloy for soldering 



SOLDEES AND SOLDEKING. 443 

it is warmed till it is about the consistency of wax, and in this state it 
is applied to the joint, to which on cooling it adheres very firmly. 

Soldering" with Dry Lead Chloride. — The process consists in 
bringing the soldering plane of the heated soldering-iron in contact 
with the dry lead chloride. When the lead chloride is melted the sol- 
der is taken up in the usual manner and applied to the joints to be 
united. In this manner lead, zinc, copper, brass or iron cati be readily 
soldered with lead with or without the use of soldering liquid. This 
interposing role of lead chloride for soldering purposes is also valuable 
for metallic coatings in a dry way by melting one metal upon the other. 
The articles to be coated are brought successively or simultaneously 
in contact with the melted lead chloride and the metal which is to fur- 
nish the coating. According to the shape of the article to be coated 
the melting may be effected either upon the article itself or the coating 
accomplished by dipping the object into the melted substances. Cop- 
per, brass and iron can in this manner be coated with zinc, tin and lead. 

Soldering' Cast-iron. — In a foundry doing agricultural work there 
are a great many alterations to be made to patterns, and often it is desir- 
able to solder brass to cast-iron where drilling and rivetting to the pat- 
tern would make anything but a neat job. By a great many men who 
work on iron patterns it is considered quite a secret to solder on cast- 
iron, but it is not so. The process is very much the same as in solder- 
ing on a tinned surface. If the part of iron to be soldered is cast-iron 
that is hard and thin it should be polished on an emory-wheel and 
made clean and bright. Then dip it in potash water, after which dip 
it for an instant in clear water and wash it quickly with undiluted 
hydrochloric acid of the ordinary strength; go over it with powdered 
rosin and solder made from half tin and half lead. This must be 
done quickly before the surface has time to dry. 

Another plan is this : File the surface clean and wash as before, wipe 
it over with a flux made of sheet zinc dissolved in hydrochloric acid 
until it is surcharged, or is a saturated solution and has been diluted 
with its own quantity of water; then sprinkle powdered sal-ammoniac 
on it and heat it on a charcoal fire until the sal-ammoniac smokes. 
Dip it in melted tin, and then remove and rap off the surplus tin. 

To Solder Cast-iron Objects. — Broken decorated cast-iron ar- 
ticles may be soldered by first removing the dirt from the surfaces to be 
joined and then brushing the latter with a brass scratch brush until 
they are, so to say, covered with a dry coat of brass. The surfaces 
thus covered with brass are then tinned in the same manner as brass 
and the parts soldered together in the usual manner. 

Platinum Can be Made to Adhere to Gold by soldering in 
the following manner: A small quantity of fine or 18-caratgold should 
be sweated into the surface of the platinum at nearly a white heat, so 
that the gold shall soak into the face of the platinum. Ordinary sol- 
der will then adhere firmly to the face obtained in this manner. 

Brazing with Brass or Copper. — File the parts to be joined clean, 
wire them in place or rivet them ; then take a few lumps of borax and 
burn them on a piece of sheet-iron, then pulverize them, dissolve some 
on the article to be brazed in it, then lay on the piece of brass or copper^ 



444 MISCELLANEOUS. 

tie it fast, sprinkle some of the borax over it, and put it in a clear fire, 
blowing very slow at first till the iron gets red. The appearance of a 
blue flame indicates the melting point of brass and copper. Allow the 
article to lie in the fire a minute without blowing, then take it out and 
lay it down gently on the hearth to cool. Very delicate articles should 
be dipped in a batter of clay to keep them from burning. When the clay 
begins to glaze it is time to take them out of the fire. Brass of copper 
should be brazed with silver. Copper can be brazed with brass, but 
the melting point of copper and brass are only a few degrees apart, and 
no such work is safe unless you have to deal with a large piece of cop- 
per. Brass and copper for brazing should be melted. When silver is 
used it should be old coin, or Mexican coin, such silver being purer. 
The blow-pipe is the best to braze with, but it requires some practice to 
use it successfully. 

To Color Soft Solder. — The following method for coloring soft 
solder, so that when it is used for uniting brass the colors may be about 
the same, has been recommended. In making the solutions care should 
be taken to use glass or earthen dishes : First prepare a saturated solu- 
tion (all that can be dissolved) of sulphate of copper or bluestone in 
water, and apply some of this on the end of a stick or small brush to 
the solder. On touching it then with an iron or steel wire it becomes 
coppered, and by repeating the experiment the deposit may be made 
thicker and darker. To give the solder a yellow color, mix in part of a 
saturated solution of zinc with two of sulphate of copper ; apply this to 
the coppered spot, and rub with a zinc rod. The color may be still 
improved by applying gilt powder, and polishing. On gold jewelry or 
colored gold the solder is first covered as above ; then a thin coat of 
gum or isinglass solution is laid on, and bronze powder dusted over it, 
making a surface which can be polished smooth and brilliant when the 
gum is dry. 

i To Remove Tarnish from Gold after Hard Soldering 1 . — First 
protectyour gold by painting it over with yellow ochre ground up with 
water and a very little borax. After soldering, throw into a pickle 
composed of water 6 parts, sulphuric acid 1 part. A copper boiling 
dish can be used for this pickle. If the article on coming out of this 
pickle is whitish-looking and shows too much of the silver alloy, dip 
for a moment in a hot mixture of sulphuric acid and saltpetre (no 
water). Wash and polish with rotten-stone and oil — then wash again 
and polish with rouge. 

Gold Paint to Conceal Soft Solder.— Dissolve bleached shellac 
in alcohol, and mix the solution with best gold (brass) bronze powder. 
Apply like a paint with a small pencil brush. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

India Ink, and How it is Made. — This product has no connection 
with India, and, as a matter of fact, ought to be called Chinese ink, it 
having been invented in China thousands of years ago. It was first 
made of lac, which is a resinous substance deposited by a small insect, 
and largely used in the manufacture of shellac. Afterward a peculiar 
black stone was found which could be dissolved in water, and later on 



MISCELLANEOUS. 445 

lac and fir wood were burned, and the resulting smoke gathered on 
some hard substance, scraped off and rolled into balls. 

The process now employed by the Chinamen in the manufacture of 
their India ink is not radically different from that in use in ancient 
days. The old principle that burning resinous material will throw off 
thick smoke in large quantities is employed, only the smoke thus 
obtained is a little more scientifically handled. In the middle of a 
porcelain dish, about 2 feet in diameter and 3 or 4 inches deep, they 
place a stand about 6 inches in diameter and the same height as the 
dish. Several small lamps rest upon the stand, and by means of arms 
fastened to the sides of the dish small conical dishes are held just over 
the lamps. The dish is filled with water almost up to the tops of the 
lamp wicks, and the lamps are lighted. The smoke condenses on the 
conical dishes hung over the lamps, and is collected in the form of a 
dense black powder. This powder is placed in a vase, and a warmed 
mixture of 9 parts of fish glue and 1 part of animal glue strained into 
it through a piece of silk held over the mouth of the vase ; the contents 
of the vase then being thoroughly stirred are rolled into balls, wrapped 
in cloth and immersed in hot water. 

Kneading, another immersion, and beating with a hammer follow, 
the paste is scented, and in the form of long sticks is placed in various- 
shaped moulds. Wrapped in paper, the sticks are placed in a dish 
filled with rice-straw ashes, and in a day or two are thoroughly dried. 
Rubbing with cloths and brushes serves to clean and polish them, and 
they are then ready for the market. The soft paste can of course be 
moulded in any shape, but as a rule it is made into short, slender sticks, 
which are generally ornamented with Chinese designs. The peculiar 
qualities of the ink render it indispensable to sketch artists and 
draughtsmen, and nothing has been found to take its place. 

Fixing India Ink. — India ink is excellent for plans and drawings 
until any color " wash," or even a little dampness, conies near the lines, 
when they then either "blur" or "run" all together. This may be 
prevented by dissolving in the water used for rubbing up the ink about 
8 grains of bichromate of potassium, or 6£ grains of the corresponding 
ammonium salt per fluid ounce. 

Manufacture of Smokeless and Flameless Powder. — Charles 
F. Hengst, of Plumstead, England, has taken out a patent for his 
invention, and describes the manufacture of the powder as follows: 
Straw, preferably oat straw, since it contains less silicic acid and other 
injurious substances than other similar organic substances, is in a 
similar manner as in the fabrication of paper converted into a pasty 
mass, which is then completely dried. This straw-mass is then treated 
with a mixture of 2 parts by weight of sulphuric acid of 1.85 specific 
gravity or 66° Be., and 1 of nitric acid of specific gravity 1.486 or 46° 
Be. A very high temperature being formed in the preparation of this 
mixture, it is allowed to rest for about 5 or 6 hours until the chemical 
reaction is past and the mixture cool. The straw-stuff is then placed 
in the mixture of acids, and the whole allowed to stand 35 to 45 hours, 
the light being excluded. The acids are then drawn off, and the straw- 
stuff is continuously washed in running water for about two hours. It 
is then brought into a vessel of sufficient size to allow of dilution, and 
boiled with water for 2 hours in order to free it from acid, the water 
lost by evaporation being constantly replaced. The mass is then freed 



446 MISCELLANEOUS. 

from water, preferably by pressing, and returned to the vessel which 
has been emptied in the meanwhile. Upon the mass is now poured a 
li per cent, aqueous solution of carbonate of soda or potash at about 
177° F., and after thoroughly stirring with a glass rod the whole is 
allowed to cool about 2 hours. The fluid is then again drawn off, and 
the mass treated in a bath containing for 1,000 quarts of water about 
47.5 lbs. of potassium nitrate, 7 lbs. of potassium chlorate, and 47.5 lbs. 
of potassium permanganate. The solution being brought to the boiling 
point, the straw-stuff is placed in it, and allowed to remain 2 to 6 hours, 
according to whether a slow or quick combustion in the use of the 
powder for firearms, cannon, etc., is desired. The mass thus treated 
is then freed as much as possible from water by pressing, pulverized 
with the assistance of a rapidly revolving contrivance and granulated 
in a suitable manner. The formed mass is finally dried with hot or 
dry air. 

The gunpowder thus prepared can only be exploded by fire, flame, 
spark, or red heat. Its preparation is connected with no danger, and 
neither its transport, packing, or storing. When used there is no 
recoil, it produces no flame visible by night nor smoke visible by day, 
and the arms do not require washing or cleaning. 

Preservation of Ropes.— Dip the dry ropes into a bath contain- 
ing 20 grains of sulphate of copper per quart of water, and after allow- 
ing them to lie in soak in this solution for four days, dry them. The 
ropes will thus have absorbed a certain quantity of sulphate of copper, 
which will preserve them alike from rot and from the attacks of animal 
parasites. The copper salt may be fixed in the fibre by a coating of tar 
or by soapy water. In tarring the rope it is said to be better to pass it 
through a bath of boiled tar, hot, drawing it through a thimble to 
press back the excess of tar, and suspending it afterwards on a staging 
to dry and harden. According to another process the rope is soaked in 
a solution of 100 grains of soap per quart of water ; the copper soap 
thus formed in the fibre of the rope preserves it from rot even better 
than the tar, which acts mechanically to imprison the sulphate of cop- 
per which is the real preservative. 

Detonating- Composition for Electrical Fuses. — The following 
two compositions are neither complicated nor difficult to prepare. 
They are very sensitive to the smallest electrical spark : 

The first consists of a mixture of pulverized potassium chlorate and 
lead ferrocyanate. This mixture, when placed between two wire- 
points nearly touching each other, detonates immediately from a small 
electrical spark. Its preparation is very simple. The lead ferrocyanate 
is obtained by precipitating a soluble lead salt (acetate or nitrate of 
lead) with yellow prussiate of potash (potassium ferrocyanide) and 
thoroughly washing and drying the precipitate. The detonating com- 
position is then obtained by mixing by means of a feather equal por- 
tions of finely pulverized potassium chlorate and of the precipitate. 

A still more sensitive and very energetically exploding composition 
is obtained by mixing equal parts of potassium chlorate and lead 
sulphocyanate. It is prepared as follows: A soluble lead salt (acetate 
of lead, etc.) is precipitated with a solution of potassium sulphocyanate. 
The precipitate is collected upon a filter, washed and thoroughly dried. 
After being rubbed to a fine powder it is mixed by means of a feather 
with equal parts of potassium chlorate. The composition does not 



MISCELLANEOUS. 447 

undergo a change by being kept for some time; it is not hygroscopic, 
and spontaneous combustion need not be feared. 

Imitation Frost Crystals. — A very pretty winter ornament for a 
parlor table, or to set on the showcase in the store, can be prepared as 
follows: Dissolve 456 grains of nitrate of lead in 6 fluid ounces of 
water. If the solution is turbid, filter through paper. Place the 
solution in a vessel on the table where it is intended to remain, and 
drop into it 200 grains of sal-ammoniac in long fibrous crystals. Small 
crystals of chloride of lead form and ascend through the denser liquid, 
presenting the appearance of an ascending snow storm. When the 
lead is all precipitated the crystals of chloride of lead begin to descend 
as a genuine miniature snow storm, forming grotesque masses re- 
sembling a winter's landscape. If the vessel containing the crystals is 
not disturbed it often preserves its beauty for a week or two. 

Hectograph Paper Sheets. — Soak 4 parts of best white glue in a 
mixture of 5 parts of water and 3 parts of solution of ammonia until 
the glue is soft. Warm the mixture until the glue is dissolved, and add 
3 parts of granulated sugar and 8 parts of glycerine, stirring well, and 
letting come to the boiling point. While hot, paint it upon white 
blotting paper with a broad copying brush until the paper is thoroughly 
soaked, and a thin coating remains on the surface. Allow it to dry for 
2 or 3 days and it is then ready for use. An aniline ink should be 
used for writing, and, before transferring to the blotting paper, wet the 
latter with a damped sponge and allow it to stand one or two minutes. 
Then proceed to make copies in the ordinary way. If the sheets are 
laid aside for two days, the old writing sinks in and does not require to 
be washed off'. 

Rust-proof Wrapping" Paper.— A new way of preparing paper 
for wrapping metallic articles to prevent tarnishing consists in incor- 
porating with the paper or applying to its surface a fine powder of 
metallic zinc, in such a manner that it will adhere, so that when 
silver, copper, brass or iron articles are wrapped in the paper they will 
be preserved from rusting or tarnishing by reason of the mere affinity 
of the zinc for sulphuretted hydrogen, chlorine or acid gases or vapors, 
and preventing them from rusting or tarnishing the metallic articles 
wrapped in such paper. This is done by sifting on the sheet of paper 
pulp, while it is in the process of manufacture, and before it is pressed 
and dried, a metallic zinc powder, known in commerce as blue powder, 
in convenient quantity, about to the extent of one-half the weight of 
the dried paper. The paper is then run between the press-rolls and 
over the drying cylinders in the ordinary way. The zinc powder will 
adhere to the paper and be partly incorporated with it in greater or 
lessquantity, asthesheetof paper pulp is more or less thick, or more or 
less wet. The paper may also be sized with glue or starch and then 
dusted with the zinc powder, or the zinc powder may be mixed with 
the size or starch, and then applied to the surface of the paper. 

Preparation of Water-proof Packing Paper. — Dip the paper 
into the following mixture : White soap, 1£ lbs. dissolved in water, 1 
quart ; gum arable, 4 ozs. 6 drachms ; and glue, 13 ozs. 3 drachms dis- 
solved in an additional quart of water. Both solutions are mixed 



448 MISCELLANEOUS. 

warm. After dipping the paper, press off the superfluous fluid and 
dry at a moderate heat. 

"Water-proof Paper.— Paper treated with a mixture of camphor ' 
oil and linseed oil becomes water-proof. 

Paper that Resists the Action of both Fire and Water, it is 
said, has been recently invented in Germany. The manufacture is 
accomplished by mixing 25 parts of asbestos fibre with 2 to 30 parts of 
aluminium sulphate. This mixture is moistened with chloride of zinc 
and thoroughly washed with water. It is then treated with a solution 
of 1 part of resin soap in 8 or 10 parts of a solution of pure aluminium 
sulphate, after which it is manufactured into paper, as is done from 
ordinary pulp. 

To take Creases out of Drawing- Paper or Drawings, lay the 
drawing face downwards on a sheet of smooth white paper, then cover 
it with another sheet slightly dampened, and iron with a moderately 
warm flat-iron. Engravings that are creased may be treated in the 
same manner. 

Marking" on Blue Prints. — It is well known to everybody ac- 
quainted with machine shop practice that frequent changes, more or 
less extensive, must be made on drawings by which any machine may 
be constructed. When blue prints are used, as they are in all shops 
of any note, such changes have been difficult, or at least unsatisfactory, 
whenever the marking agents used were black ink, alkalies, or Chinese 
white. Black on the blue ground does not give a sufficient contrast 
to be easily read. Alkalies, though giving at first a somewhat white 
line, in a short time fade more or less, leaving a yellowish dirty mark, 
which neither looks well nor is easily read. The use of Chinese 
white is objectionable because it is not permanent — it is easily rubbed 
off unless fixed by varnish. But to varnish blue prints is poor 
economy. 

The most satisfactory marking ink for blue prints is the red soda. 
This consists simply of a red ink, in which a little gum arabic and 
enough soda has been dissolved to decompose the blue coloring matter 
of the print. The relative amount of each is usually determined by 
trial. Red ink alone does not show much better on a blue print than 
black ink. The action of the soda solution alone is to decompose the 
blue matter of the print and leave the white paper exposed. This 
" white paper" is colored at the same time to any color desired, if the 
proper coloring matter be added to the clear soda solution. Diamond 
dyes answer admirably for this purpose. The gum arabic solution is 
added to thicken the soda solution, to prevent it from, flowing too 
freely from the pen and spreading on the paper which it is otherwise 
liable to do. Caustic soda is the best for the purpose ; ordinary wash- 
ing soda, however, will answer. 

A red ink thus prepared makes a bright contrast with the blue 
background of the print, and looks well. Any small alteration of a 
drawing may be drawn on the print with this ink without erasing the 
original lines, which can never be done well, and still the drawing is 
easily read, because the red lines are so prominent that they are not 
obscured in the least by the original lines. Of course, no extensive 
changes are made in this way, the blue print being replaced by a 



MISCELLANEOUS. 449 

new one, made from the corrected " original," when it is cheaper to 
do so. 

Any marking may be done on a blue print with this ink without the 
necessity of leaving a "white spot" to mark on, and then the red 
shows even better than the black on white. 

Scouring" and Bleaching- Feathers. — Scouring and bleaching 
are two distinct operations, the former tending to remove from the 
material all fatty substances, while the latter consists in rendering 
the feathers perfectly white, after having been cleansed from their fatty 
contents. According to quality, the first washing in soap is done at 
100° to 122° F., the bath to be prepared in the proportion of 500 parts 
by weight of white Marseilles soap for 600 of water, and well 
beaten up into a lather. Lay down the feathers and rub them well by 
hand until the bath is exhausted and has lost its detergent power. 
Then let it out and repeat the operation with a fresh bath of the same 
composition ; then remove the soap by rinsing in 2 or 3 waters at 
100° F. Prepare a cold bath of 45 to 62 grains of bioxalate of potash 
to 5 quarts of water, lay down the feathers for 15 or 20 minutes, lift 
and rinse in cold water. After passing them 3 or 4 times through 
the cold water, the feathers are to be blued. For this purpose add to 
a fresh bath of cold water so much solution of (methyl) aniline violet 
as will give the water a faint tint; open the feathers well and agitate 
thern in the bath until they also have assumed the tint; then squeeze 
them out in a clean white piece of cloth (muslin) and pass through a 
pretty thick solution of raw starch (8 ozs. to 4 quarts water unboiled), 
squeeze out again, open them by passing the hand lightly over the 
stem, and dry either in a warm place, or preferably in the air, shaking 
them repeatedly while drying in order to perfectly open the fibres. 
Finally beat out the remaining starch either by hand or by means of 
a soft brush. 

To Color Moss. — Moss intended for wreaths and bouquets or for 
similar purposes is generally colored in dark and light shades of green, 
brown, violet and black, and some white or bleached varieties, red. 
The moss is first cleaned, thoroughly dried and tied in loose bundles. 
The latter, with the head-end of the moss outwards, are placed in 
wide-meshed nets, which are immersed in the color. As soon as the 
moss has acquired the desired shade it is taken out, pressed and dried, 
without, however, rinsing it previously in water. 

Dark green is produced with malachite green. Dissolve in 1 quart 
of water 2.82 drachms of alum, heat the mixture to 189° F., and add 
malachite green until the color has a beautiful blue-green appearance. 
By adding to the color some picric acid, the moss acquires a pale 
yellow color, while a yellow green is produced with yellowish 
methyl green and a sufficient addition of picric acid. A brown red 
color is given to the moss by aniline fuchsine, the process being the 
same as for green. Dark violet is obtained by methyl violet, it being, 
however, best to use for this and the last color moss bleached in 
the sun. 

The moss is colored black by mixing 2.25 drachms of dissolved log- 
wood extract with 1 quart of water, and putting the moss in the 
mixture for 3 to 4 hours so that it is entirely covered. Then mix 2.25 
drachms of blue vitriol with 1 quart of cold water, take the moss from 
the logwood decoction, and after pressing it well out put it into the 



450 MISCELLANEOUS. 

solution of blue vitriol, allowing it to remain 4 to 6 hours. Now add 
to the logwood decoction a small quantity of whiting and a few grains 
of potassium bichromate, and after pressing out the moss place it in 
the solution and allow it to remain until it is black. Then press out 
and dry it in the shade, without, however, rinsing it in water. 

Rose-color can only be produced upon very pale moss or upon com- 
pletely bleached varieties. It is produced by adding as much safranine 
to a mixture of 5.64 drachms of alum in 1 quart of water as is neces- 
sary to produce the desired shade. 

Red is obtained by heating 8.46 drachms of alum in 1 quart of water 
to the boiling point, then adding the necessary quantity of easine and 
allowing the moss to remain immersed in the boiling fluid for several 
minutes. 

Cleaning Oil. — To clean lubricating oil that has once been used so 
that it can be used again, pour it gently over a bed of iron which is 
strongly magnetized. The heaps of iron fragments constitute a mag- 
netic sponge which stops all the particles of metal, especially those of 
iron. The oil is then passed through two hair filters and comes out 
perfectly clean. 

Making- Tissues Brilliant. — A new method for giving brilliancy 
to printed tissues consists in the properties of hydrate of farina (potato 
starch) to form a kind of soap with the fatty matters. Dissolve i lb. 
of potato starch in 16 ozs. of river water. Heat the solution slowly, 
stirring it continually with a wooden spoon, until it congeals to a weak 
consistency. Then mix it with 17 pints of tepid water in an earthen- 
ware vessel, the result being a water which is sweet, glutinous and 
sharp to the touch. 

Ink Eraser. — Blotting paper or a similar material is immersed in a \ 
hot concentrated solution of citric acid, then rolled into a pencil and 
the larger portion of it coated with paper or lacquer. For use the 
eraser is moistened with the tongue or water and rubbed over the ink 
to be removed. A drop of water containing chloride of lime is then 
dropped upon the ink spot, whereby the ink immediately disap- 
pears. 

Absolute Alcohol Obtained Without Distillation.— If gelatine 
be suspended in ordinary alcohol it will absorb the water, but as it is 
insoluble in alcohol that substance will remain behind, and thus 
nearly absolute alcohol may be obtained without distillation. 

, Cheap Jacketing for Steam-pipes. — Wrap the pipe in asbestos 
I paper, and lay a number of strips of wood lengthwise, from six to 
twelve, according to the size of the pipe, and bind them into position 
with wire ; around the frame work thus constructed wrap roofing 
paper, fastening it with paste or twine. If exposed to the weather, use 
tar paper or paint the outside. 

Renovating Picture Frames. — Dingy or rusty gilt picture frames 
may be improved by simply washing them with a small sponge 
moistened with spirits of wine or oil of turpentine, the sponge only to 
be sufficiently wet to take off the dirt and fly marks. They should not 
be wiped afterward, but left to dry of themselves. 



MISCELLANEOUS. 451 

Liquid Stove Polish. — Mix 2 parts of copperas, 1 of bone black, 
1 of pulverized graphite, with sufficient water to form a creamy paste. 
This stove polish is as nearly odorless as possible. 

Test for the Quality of Leather. — A handy test for the quality 
of leather is to allow small pieces to remain for several hours in 
vinegar. If the leather has been well tanned the vinegar will only 
darken the color; if, on the contrary, the leather is of poor make, it 
will partly or wholly form a gelatinous mass. 

How to Polish Sea Shells.— The outer and rougher portions are 
usually eaten off with some of the stronger acids, like sulphuric or 
muriatic, the inner surfaces being protected with tallow or wax. 
Rough grained stones, followed by finer ones, smooth the surface, and 
finally ground pumice stone and water with a wood wheel to remove 
scratches. This course makes the harder sea shells smooth, and a coat 
of spirit varnish (bleached shellac dissolved in methylic alcohol) gives 
the look of polish. A real polish requires a good deal of labor, and is 
obtained by using tripoli and water, or putty powder (oxide of tin) 
and water, and such buffs as the form or parts of a shell demand. 

/ Incombustible Wick. — Fine wood sawdust 4 parts ; powdered fire 
clay 2 parts ; powdered glass 1 part ; cotton or cotton dust 1 part ; sea- 
sand 6 parts. This mixture moistened, dried and fired at a full red 
heat for half an hour, is stated to yield a very permanent and porous 
material for lamp wicks. 

Glycerine, Some of its Practical Uses. — Asa dressing for ladies' 
shoes it renders the leather soft and pliable without soiling garments 
which come in contact. 

For excessive perspiration of the feet, 1 part of burnt alum with 2 
of glycerine should be rubbed on the feet at night and a light, open 
sock worn. In the morning the feet should be washed with tepid 
water. 

For bunions and corns, equal parts of cannabis indica and glyce- 
rine should be painted on the surface and covered with canton flannel. 

For the face, oatmeal made into a paste with 2 parts of glycerine 
and 1 of water may be applied at night under a mask as a complexion 
improver. 

As a supplement to a bath, 2 ozs. of glycerine in 2 quarts of water 
will render the skin fresh and delicate. 

For coughs, one to two tablespoonfuls of glycerine in pure rye 
whiskey or hot rich cream will afford almost immediate relief. 

For consumption, 1 part of powdered willow charcoal in 2 parts of 
glycerine is a panacea. 

For diseased and inflamed gums, 3 parts of golden seal, 1 part of 
powdered burnt alum, and 2 parts of glycerine, rubbed on at night, 
after first removing any tartar. 



INDEX 



Absorbent or radiating and reflecting 

powers of substances, 190, 191. 
Abutments and arches, 82-84. 

minimum thickness of, for arches, 83. 
Acid, fluoric, to make, 281. 

-resisting bronze, 365. 

to destroy the effect of, on clothes, 
343. 
Acids, dipping, for various purposes, 256. 
Air and steam, mixture of, 55. 

as a standard, 200, 201. 
Alabaster, marble or stone, stains for, 

315. 
Albata metal, 252. 
Alcohol, absolute, without distillation, 

450. 
Alloy, bushing, for pivot holes, 329. 

Chantry's hard, 252. 

definition of a, 164. 

fusible, 367, 368. 

plastic metallic, 89. 

resembling gold, 364, 365. 

which expands on cooling, 365. 
Alloys, 354-368. 

and compositions, 164, 165. 

composition of some, 363. 

containing platinum, assaying of, 
275. 

for gold, 250, 251. 

for silver coin and plate, 250. 

fusible, 248, 368. 

in gilding, to detect, 417. 

jeweller's, 329. 

new, 364. 

non-magnetic, 365. 

of bismuth and cadmium, 368. 

of copper with nickel, 367. 

of lead, antimony and tin, 366, 367. 

of manganese, 361, 362. 

specific gravities of, 177. 

strength of, when pulled in the direc- 
tion of their length, 226. 
Aluminium and gold, alloy of, 358, 359. 

and iron, alloys of, 359, 360. 

and its alloys, 354-360. 

and silver, alloys of, 359. 

and tin, alloy of, 359. 

brass, 357. 

bronze, 91, 355-357. 



Aluminium, bronze and nickel alloys, 358. 

bronze, brazing of, 360. 

bronze, soldering of, 360. 

electroplating with, 385. 

palmitate, 403, 404. 
Amalgam, definition of an, 164. 

for electrical machines, 254. 

for mirrors, 253. 

gold, to make, 341. 

gold, to plate with, 341. 
American stones, transverse strength of, 
101. 

woods, properties of, 228. 
Anatomical injections, metal for, 255. 
Angler's and trapper's secret for fish and 

game, 316. 
Angles, sector for obtaining, 21. 
Aniline colors, table of solubility of, 244. 
Animal substances, weight and specific 

gravity of, 185. 
Annealing, assaying gold by, 275. 

steel, 417, 418. 
Antifriction alloy for journal boxes, 260. 

grease, 352. 

metal, Fenton's, 260. 
Antimony, tin and lead, alloys of, 366, 

367. 
Aqua-fortis bronze dip, 258. 
Aquaria, cement for, 313. 
Arc of a circle, definition of, 14. 
Arches and abutments, 82-84. 

depths required for the crowns of, 
82. 

minimum thickness of abutments for, 
83. 
Arch, flat, to draw a, by the intersection 

of lines, 42. 
Area, to find the, of an ellipse, 7. 

to find the, of a sector of a circle, 3. 
Areas, circumferences and diameters of 
circles, and the content of each in 
gallons at 1 foot in depth, 28-31. 

of circles, definition of, 14. 

of regular polygons, table of, 47. 

to find the weight from the, 145. 
Argentan, 165. 

Paris, 367. 
Argentiferous alloy, 165. 
Argentine, white, 254. 

(453} 



454 



INDEX. 



Arithmetical signs, definition of, 33, 34. 
Arithmetic, instrumental, 48-52. 
Artificers' rules and tables, 71-80. 
Ashberry metal, 366. 
Asphalt composition, 69. 
Assaying alloys containing platinum, 275. 
of gold containing palladium, 275. 

Babbitt metal, lining of boxes with, 345. 
Babbitt's anti-attrition metal, 90. 

metal, 165, 260. 
Bake-ovens, new cement for, 395. 
Ball, cast-iron, to find the weight of a, 

241. 
Balloon varnish, 350. 
Balustrade, measurement of, 75. 
Barns and houses, best wash for, 288. 

milk paint for, 289. 
Bar of iron, strength of, 122. 

rectangular, to compute the pressure 
upon the ends of a, or upon the 
supports, 105, 106. 
rectangular, to compute the trans- 
verse strength of a, 103-105. 
Barometer, chemical, to make, 316. 
Barrels, twist, browning for, 270. 

wooden, impregnation of, 370. 
Bars, cast-iron, extension of, 98. 

cast-iron, transverse strength of, 

102. 
rolled, direct from the molten metal, 

422-424. 
strength of, 123. 
Bases, measurement of, 75. 
Bath metal, 259. 
Battery, silvering without a, 390. 

to plate with a, 340, 341. 
Beam, cast-iron, to find the weight of a, 
181. 
cast-iron, weight and pressure sus- 
tained by a, 130, 131. 
rectangular, to compute the pressure 
upon the ends of a, or upon the 
supports, 105, 106. 
rectangular, to compute the trans- 
verse strength of a, 103-105. 
to compute the dimensions and form 
of a, 110, 111. 
Beams, cast-iron, transverse strength of, 
115. 
header and trimmer, stress borne by, 

113. 
oak, transverse strength of, 102. 
resistance of, to detrusion, 120. 
solid, rectangular and round, to find 

the strength of, 133, 134. 
stiffness of, 120. 
strength of, 122, 123, 133-135. 
to compute the length of, necessary 

to resist a horizontal thrust, 120. 
to find the breaking weight of, 134. 
to find the proper size for any given 

purpose, 134, 135. 
transverse strength of. 108-110. 
Bearing metals for locomotives, 364. _ 
Bearings of rapidly running machines, 
alloys for, 364. 



Bell metal, 247, 252, 255, 324. 

Parisian, 255. 
Bells, for locomotives, 364. 
musical, alloy for, 165. 
Belt, computation of stress, transmitted 

to a, 61, 62. 
Belting, broken, to reunite, 395, 396. 
to measure in the roll, 241. 
vulcanized rubber, butt-splicing of, 
209, 210. 
Belts, 61, 62. 

rubber, to repair, 391. 
Bernados and Olszewsky's process of 

electric welding, 427-430. 
Bevel covers for vessels, or breasts of 
cans, to describe, 12, 19. 
gears, 344, 345. 
Bidery, 252. 
Biddery metal, 366. 
Bismuth alloys, 368. 

and cadmium, alloys of, 368. 
bronze, 366. 

electroplating with, 385, 386. 
solder, 253. 
Bisque, cement for, 393, 394. 
Blacking for harness, 351. 
oil paste, 307. 
superior edge, 306. 
waterproof, 307. 
without polishing, 352. 
Black rock tunnel, 84. 
Blaisley tunnel, 84. 
Blasting, 86. 
Bleaching and scouring feathers, 449. 

ivory, 314. 
Blinds, green paint for, 288, 289. 
Blue prints, marking on, 449, 449. 
Bluing screws evenly, 335, 336. 
small sheet-steel articles, 383. 
to remove from steel, 336. 
Bodies, internal heat-conducting power 
of, 191. 
moving, power concentrated in, 120. 
regular, epitome of mensuration of 

the surfaces and solidities of, 46. 
relative strength of, to resist torsion, 

133. 
resistance of, to flexure, 131. 
resistance of, to twisting, 132. 
solid, volume, weight and specific 

gravities of, 178-186. 
various, rules for finding the specific 
gravity of, 175, 176. 
Body, turnip-shaped, to get the contents 
of a, 241. 
varnish, 297. 
Boiler cover, oval, to describe, 13. 
incrustation, 245, 246. 
incrustation, various remedies for, 

246. 
management of the, 60. 
plates, how proved, 207. 
Boilers, engine, mensuration of, 52, 53. 
incrustation of, 324, 325. 
steam, management of, 206, 207. 
to prevent deposits of lime in, 263. 
zinc in, 207. 



INDEX. 



455 



Boiling points of liquids, 188. 
Bolts, cast and wrought iron, computa- 
tion of weights of, 91. 
Bone and ivory, to stain brown, 369. 
horn and ivory, dyes for, 314. 
ivory, mother-of-pearl, wood, 369- 
378. 
Bookbinder's red, red sprinkle for, 312. 

varnish, 297, 312. 
Book covers, leather, etc., japan coloring 

for, 313. 
Books or paper, to marble, 312. 
Booth's grease for railway axles, 352. 
Boots and shoes, sizing for, in treeing 

out, 306, 307. 
Boot, shoe and harness edge, best color 

for, 306. 
Borax, substitute for, 265. 
Boring a hole with a boring tool, 345, 
346. 
arbor and tool, to make a, that will 

not chatter, 346. 
holes with boring arbor, 346. 
Boston harbor, concrete used in the con- 
struction of the sea-wall of, 64. 
Bottle glass, 318. 

Boxes, lining of, with Babbitt metal, 345. 
Bracket, good proportions of a, 139. 
Brass, 253, 255. 

aluminium, 357. 

and glass, cement for, 394. 

and zinc signs, cement for filling, 

395. 
best, for clocks, 252. 
best lacquer for, 258. 
best red, for fine castings, 247. 
bronzed, lacquer for, 257. 
bronze for, 324. 
bronze paint for, 258. 
buttonmaker's common, 255. 
castings, locomotive, 364. 
chains, chain dip solution for, 326. 
coloring and polishing, 382, 383. 
copper, steel and lead, weight of a 

foot of, 144. 
dipped, gold-colored lacquer for, 257. 
dipped, lacquer for, 256, 257. 
fine, 255. 

for heavy castings, 260. 
for tinning, 258. 
for turning, 247. 
for wire, 254. 
German, 260. 
gold lacquer for, 257. 
hard soldering of, 339. 
malleable, 253. 
not dipped, gold-colored lacquer for, 

257. 
old, to clean, 416. 
olive bronze dip for, 258. 
or copper, brazing with, 443, 444. 
ornaments, to clean, 353. 
pale lacquer for, 257. 
polishing paste for, 412. 
red, 255,367. 
red, for gilt articles, 260. 
red, for turning, 247. 



Brass, red lacquer for, 257. 
silicon, 363. 
solder, 248. 
solution, 273. 
tinning acid for, 256. 
to clean and polish, 269. 
to produce a silver-white coating on, 

383. 
to temper or draw its temper, 334. 
various compositions of, 165. 
vinegar bronze for, 256. 
watchmaker's, 260. 
wire, tensile strength of, 435. 
yellow, for casting, 260. 
yellow, for turning, 247. 
yellow solder for, 248. 
Brasses for driving-boxes, 364. 
Brassing iron, 273. 
Brazing aluminium bronze, 360. 

with brass or copper, 443, 444. 
Bricklayers' work, measurement of, 71. 
Bricks and stones, crushing strength of, 
238-240. 
cement and stone, tensile strength 

of, 233, 234. 
fire-proof, preparation of, 401. 
number required for any piece of 

building, 72. 
transverse strength of, 102. 
wetting of, 68. 
Brick walls, new method of rendering im- 
permeable to water, 410. 
walls, old, to renovate, 410. 
walls, plastering outside, 397. 
Brickwork, painting of, 350. 
to estimate, 243. 
transverse strength of, 103. 
Bridges, railway, 83. 
strength of, 122. 
Bridle stain, 309. 
Britannia, English, 366. 
German, 366. 
hardening for, 247. 
metal, 165, 252, 254, 259. 
metal, compositions of, 247, 248. 
ware, cast, soft solder for, 248. 
ware, white solder for, 247. 
British plate, 252. 
Broaches, diamond, to make, 336. 

polishing, to make, 336. 
Bronze, 254. 

acid resisting, 365. 

aluminium, 91, 355-357. 

ancient, 254. 

bismuth, 366. 

-colored coating of oxide upon iron, 

380. 
dips, 258. 
finest, 266, 267. 
for all kinds of metal, 258. 
• for brass, 324. 
for cannon, 254. 
for medals, 254. 
gold beetle-colored, 409. 
malleable, 91, 362, 363. 
metal, 247. 
ornaments, alloy for, 254. 



456 



INDEX. 



Bronze paint, antique, 257. 

paints, 258. 

phosphor, 360, 361. 

powder, 305. 

powder, beautiful red, 254. 

statuary, 254. 

tenacity of, 95. 

various compositions of, 165. 
Bronzing, coloring, electroplating, enam- 
elling, etc., of metals, 378-390. 

copper, 378. 

fluid for guns, 254. 

general directions for, 304. 

iron, 304. 

liquid, 347. 

mosaic gold powder for, 303. 

of plaster casts, 304. 

of tin, 378. 

or gilding wood, 305. 

steam-pipe for steam-heating, 378. 

zinc fret work, 378. 
Brown bronze dip, 258. 

bronze paint, for copper vessels, 258. 
Browning, 347, 348. 

composition for gun barrels, 270. 

for gun barrels, 269, 270. 

for twist barrels, 270. 
Brunswick black for grates, 269. 
Brush coppering for iron and steel, 384. 

or log dams, 323, 324. 
Brushes, to cleanse, 343. 
Building stones, weight, strength, etc. of, 

235-238. 
Bunions and corns, remedy for, 451. 
Burning fluid, northern light, 329. 
Burnishers, to make, 336. 
Burnisher, to prepare one, for polishing, 

337. 
Bushing alloy for pivot holes, 329. 
Bush, to, 337. 
Button-maker's metal, 253. 
Buttons, horn, to make iridescent, 369, 
370. 

Cabinet-maker's varnish, 297. 
Cadmium and bismuth, alloys of, 368. 
Cake, pyramidal, set of patterns for a, 

15, 16. 
Calf, kip and harness leather, tanning of, 

in thirty days, 309. 
Calico printing blocks, alloy for, 253. 
Candle, spermaceti, rate of consumption 

of a, 91. 
Canisters, oil, tin required for, 27. 
Cannon, bronze for, 254. '* 

metal, 254. 

to tighten a pinion on the centre 
arbor, 328. 
Cans, level covers for breast of, to de- 
scribe, 12, 19. 
one inch deep, capacity of, 32. • 
Canvas, flexible paint for, 294. 

or wood, patent varnish for, 298. 
to render water-proof and pliable, 
350. 
Capacity and solidity, mensuration of, 
52-55. 



Carbon, 91. 

Carpenters' and joiners' work, measure- 
ment of, 74-76. 
Carriage varnish, 297. 
Carver's polish, 302. 
Case-hardening iron, 328. 

springs, to temper, 334, 335. 
Cask, partly filled, to ullage or find the 

contents of a, 163. 
Casks, gauging of, 160-163. 

gauging of, in Imperial and United 

States gallons, 161-163. 
table of the capacities of, 162. 
Castings, cement for holes in, 347. 
heavy, brass for, 260. 
heavy, cores in, 420. 
shrinkage of, 120, 121. 
subject to steam pressure, alloy for, 

364. 
to fill holes in, 257. 
Casting, to find the weight of any, 145. 
Cast-iron and hollow ware, to enamel, 
273. 
bars, extension of, 98. 
bending of, 417. 
cement, 262. 
coating for, 381, 382. 
composition of, 224. 
effect of remelting on the strength 

of, 225. 
enameled, 273. 
leather to fasten to, 394. 
objects, to solder, 443. 
ornaments, finishing of, 264. 
scaling of, 263. 
softening of, 417. 
soldering of, 443. 

surfaces, squaring or facing up, 346. 
tensile strength of, 94, 95. 
to enamel, 381. 
to soften for drilling, 266. 
to weld, 261 . 
Cast metal, to compute the weight of, 

121. 
Cast-steel, composition for welding, 89, 
263. 
to harden and temper, 325. 
Cast, to take a plaster of Paris, from a 

person's face, 325. 
Ceilings, blue color for, 290. 
Celluloid, burning with difficulty, prepa- 
ration of, 391. 
how made, 390, 391. 
printing on, 391. 
rubber, etc. , 390-392. 
Cement, adhesive, for fractures of all 
kinds, 353. 
coppersmith's, 249. 
flexible, 394. 
for aquaria, 313. 
for bisque, 393. 394. 
for cast-iron, 262. 
for cisterns and wooden casks, 394, 

395. 
for filling brass and zinc signs, 395. 
for filling out holes, etc., in window 
frames, 395. 



INDEX. 



457 



Cement, for glass, 368. 

for glass and brass, 394. 

for leather, rubber soles and leather 
belting, 307. 

for outside brick walls, 294. 

for repairing stone structures, 393. 

for repairing zinc ornaments, 395. 

for seams in roofs, 295. 

for steam-pipe joints, etc., 262. 

for tile roofs, 294. 

for valuable glass ware, 394. 

from chloride of zinc, 394. 

gasfitter's, 269. 

good, for various purposes, 393. 

hard, 267. 

hydraulic, 62. 

jeweller's Armenian, 279. 

jeweller's Turkish, 279. 

mastic for fronts of houses, 294. 

metal, 395. 

metallic, %BS. 

new, for bake ovens, 395. 

plumber's, 269. 

Roman, 296. 

roofing, 393. 

soft, for steam-boilers, steam-pipes, 
etc., 267. 

stone and bricks, tensile strength of, 
233, 234. 

to change quick-setting into slow- 
setting, 397. 

to fasten porcelain letters, 394. 

very adhesive, 394. 

water required for, 74. 
Cements, 346, 347. 

crushing strength of, 66. 67, 116. 

mortars, concretes and limes, 62-70. 

mortars, mucilage, paste, plaster of 
Paris, 393-399. 

tensile strength of, 65, 66. 

transverse strength of, 64, 65, 102. 
Centigrade thermometer, 242. 
Centrifugal force, 139. 
Chain dip solution for brass chains, etc., 
326. 

to prevent a, from running off the 
fusee, 333. 
Chains, iron, weight and strength of, 
127. 

table of strength of, 127. 
Chalk, to prepare for cleaning, 331, 332. 
Change wheels in screw-cutting lathes, 

155-157. 
Changing varnish, 298. 
Chantry's hard alloy, 252. 
Charcoal, animal weight and specific 
gravity of, 185. 

wood, weight and specific gravity 
of, 184, 185. 
Chemical barometer, to make, 316. 
China and glass, gilding of, 281. 

cement for, 347. 

gold lustre for, 281. 
Chinese gong metal, 252. 

silver, 165, 254. 

white copper, 165, 259, 367. 
Chord of a circle, definition of, 14. 

31 



Chrome green, 291 

yellow, 291. 
Church bells, alloy for, 165. 
Circle, arc of a, definition of, 14. 
chord of a, definition of, 14. 
diameter of a, definition of, 14. 
epitome of, mensuration of, 44, 45. 
radius of a, definition of, 14. 
sector of a, definition of, 14. 
segment of a, definition of, 14. 
semicircle of a, definition of, 14. 
the, and its sections, 14. 
to describe a regular hexagon within 

a, 36. 
to find the area of the sector of a, 3. 
to find the centre of a, from a part of 

the circumference, 20. 
to inscribe a regular pentagon, with- 
in a, 35. 
to inscribe a square within a, 35. 
to inscribe an equilateral triangle 

within a, 34. 
Circles, areas of, definition of, 14. 
proportions of, 4, 5. 
table of diameters, circumferences 

and areas of, and content of each 

in gallons at 1 foot in depth, 28-31. 
Circumferences, diameters and areas of 

circles, and the content of each in 

gallons at 1 foot in depth, 28-31. 
Circumference, to find the centre of a 

circle, from a part of the, 20. 
to find the, of an ellipse, 7. 
to find the, of any diameter, 3. 
Cisterns and wells, measurement of, 73. 
and wooden casks, cement for, 394, 

395. 
cement for, 347. 
cylindrical, capacity of, 244. 
cylindrical, rule for measuring, 244. 
Clay, fine, 69. 
Cleaning a clock, 337. 
brass ornaments, 353. 
ivory ornaments, 370. 
marble, 315, 351. 
marble ornaments, 413, 414. 
metal and stone work, 413. 
of watches, 330,331. 
oil, 450. 

oil paintings, 326. 
pith for, 332. 

to prepare chalk for, 331, 332. 
varnish. 350. 
Cleansing brushes, 343. 

surface condensers, 206. 
Cliche metal, 368. 

Clicks, ratchets, etc., to temper, 335. 
Clock bell metal, 253. 
bells, alloy for, 165. 
cases, gilt, to restore the lustre of, 

416. 
faces, to silver, 271. 
hands, to reblacken, 343. 
or watch wheels, to put teeth in, 

without dovetailing er soldering, 

328. 
to clean a, 337- 



458 



INDEX. 



Clock, to make the, to strike correctly, 

338. 
Clocks, defect in, to look after, 338. 
Cloth, black, reviver for, 316. 
to raise a nap on, 316. 
water-proofing for porous, 317. 
Clothes, to destroy the effects of acid on, 

343. 
Clothing renovator, 317. 

water-proofing for, 316. 
Coaches, black varnish for, 298. 
Coatings, approved for metals, 379. 
Cock metal, 247. 
Cocks, alloy for, 165. 
Cohesion, modulus of, 94. 
Cold, heat, light, etc., rules relating to, 
189-196. 
silvering on metals, 278. 
silver-plating, 389, 390. 
solder, 442, 443. 
water pump, 139. 
Coloring and polishing brass, 382, 383. 
bronzing, electroplating, enamelling, 
etc., of metals, 378-390. 
Colored glass, 325. 
Colors, compound, 286. 
Column, dimensions of a, to bear a given 
pressure, 131, 132. 
hollow wrought-iron, to find the 

strength of any, 137. 
strength of a, 123. 
Columns, hollow, strength of, 137. 
measurement of, 73, 74. 
of oblong section, to find the strength 

of, 137, 138. 
of wood, crushing resistance of, 232. 
round, of plate iron riveted, 138. 
round, to find the strength of, 136. 
solid, comparative strength of, 135. 
square, of plate iron riveted, 137. 
tables of powers for the diameters 

and lengths of, 136. 
wrought-iron, to find the strength of, 
135. 
Combustion, spontaneous, 220, 221. 
Complexion, paste for, 451. 
Compositions and alloys, 164, 165. 
for various purposes, 260. 
tensile strength of, 97. 
Compound colors, 286. 

iron paint, 288. 
Compounds, fusible, 89. 
Concrete, French, 397. 

various compositions of, 64. 
Concretes, mortars, cements and limes, 
62-70. 
transverse strength of, 64, 65, 102. 
Condensers, surface, cleansing of, 206. 
Cone, contents in gallons of the frustum 
of a, 23, 24. 
envelope for a, 15, 16. 
or frustum, rule for striking out a, 22. 
or frustum, to describe a, 16. 
or pyramid, to find the contents of a, 

22. 
to construct the frustum of a, 21. 
Cones, epitome of mensuration of, 47. 



Consumption, glycerine in, 451. 

Copal varnish, 298. 

Copper and gold, enamelling on, 275, 276. 

and its alloys, and other metals, ulti- 
mate tensile strength of, 227, 228. 

and other vessels, to enamel, 273, 
274. 

articles, red stain for, 383. 

bronzing, 378. 

hard soldering of, 339. 

or brass, brazing with, 443, 444. 

plates or rods, to brass, 272. 

powder, 304. 

solder for, 249. 

steel, lead and brass, weight of a foot 
of, 144. 

stew dishes, to tin, 268. 

tinning of, without heating, 384. 

to refine, 338. 

to separate silver from, 259. 

vessels, brown bronze paint for, 258. 

white Chinese, 165, 259, 367. 

wire, tensile strength of, 435. 

with nickel, alloys of, 367. 

with silver and gold, alloys of, 365. 

yellow solder for, 248. 
Coppering of zinc plates, 383, 384. 
Coppersmiths, cement for, 249, 347. 
Copying ink, 348. 
Cord, computation of stress transmitted 

to a, 61, 62. 
Cores in heavy castings, 420. 
Cornices, wood, gilding of, 376, 377. 
Corns and bunions, remedy for, 451. 
Coughs, remedy for, 451. 
Cover for oval boiler, to describe, 13. 
Covers, bevel, for vessels or breasts for 
cans, to describe, 12, 19. 

pitched, for pails, to describe, 12, 13. 
Crane, to find the strain on the principal 

parts and on the post, of a, 138. 
Crosby indicator, the, 213-215. 
Crown glass, 319. 

Crowns of arches, depths required for, 82. 
Crucibles, 262. 

fire-proof, preparation of, 401. 
Crushing strength, 117. 

strength of various materials, 116. 
Crystal glass, 318. 
Cube and square roots of numbers, 49. 

epitome of mensuration of, 45, 46. 
Cubitt, Hughes, Stephenson, Fairbairn, 
etc., deductions from experiments 
of, 111,112. 
Culverts, definition of, 80. 
Currier's size, 311. 
Cutlery, tempering of, 270, 271. 
Cutters, machine, sharpening angles 

of, 86. 
Cycloid, 17, 18. 

Cylinder, amount of wire required to 
wrap round a, in a spiral, 241. 

epitome of mensuration of, 44, 45. 

solid, to compute the diameter of a, 
to support a given weight, 106, 107. 
Cylinders, pinions or staffs, to temper, 
without springing them, 335. 



INDEX. 



459 



Cylinders, solid and hollow, transverse 
strength of, 103. 
to compute the transverse strength 
of, 106. 

Damascus sword blades., hardening com- 
pound used in, 348. 
Dams and tunnels, 118, 119. 

(earthwork), 118. 

(masonry), 119. 
Deer skins, tanning and buffing of, 

308, 309. 
Delfosse's boiler compound, 324, 325. 
Delta metal, 363. 
Dentist's emery wheels, 324. 
Dextrin solution for gumming, prepara- 
tion of, 398. 
Diagrams, explanation of, 3-23. 

for sheet-metal work, explanation of, 
166-173. 

indicator, 216, 217. 
Dial, to mend, 415. 
Diameter of a circle, definition of, 14. 

to find the circumference of any, 3. 
Diameters, circumferences and areas of 
circles and the content of each in 
gallons at 1 foot in depth, 28-31. 
Diamond brooches, to make, 336. 

chill, 264. 

files, to make, 336. 

mill, to make a, 327. 
Dies and moulds, 278. 
Dipping acids for various purposes, 256. 
Disk, revolving, to compute the power 

of, 120. 
Door plates, to make, 279, 280. 
Doors, measurement of, 75 
Drainage of land by pipes, 80. 
Drains, definition of, 80. 
Draughtsmen, paper for, 351. 
Draw-filing and finishing, 345. 
Drawings, to take creases out, 448. 
Dressing for ladies' shoes, glycerine for, 
451. 

French, for leather, 311. 
Drilling into hard steel, 328. 

a hole, without reaming, 345. 
Drills and gravers, to temper, 279. 

to temper, 334. 
Dryer, japan, 409. 
Drying oils, 293. 
Dubbing, 351. 
Dyeing mother-of-pearl, 370. 

of leather, 307. 
Dyes for ivory, horn and bone, 314. 

for leather, 311, 312. 

for veneers, 286, 287. 



Earthen vessels, to perforate, 403. 
Earthenware, cement for, 347. 
Earth, temperature of the, 90. 
Ebony color upon wood, 371. 
Edge-tools, glycerine for sharpening, 421. 
Efflorescences, mural, 70. 
Elasticity and strength, definitions of, 
91, 92. 



Elasticity, modulus of, and weight of 
various substances, 94. 
modulus of, definition and computa- 
tion of the, 92,93. 
of torsion, 132. 
to compute the height of the modulus 

of, 93. 
to compute the weight of the modu- 
lus of, 93. 
to compute the weight of the modu- 
lus of, when the height is given, 93. 
Elbow, curved, to describe an, 9-11. 

four-piece, to describe a pattern for 

a, 166, 167. 
right-angled, to describe an, 8. 
straight, to describe an, 9, 11. 
Electrical fuses, detonating composition 
for, 446, 447. 
machines, amalgam for, 254. 
Electrically refining and reducing zinc, 

420, 421. 
Electricity for tempering steel, 418. 
glass cutting by, 402. 
recutting files by, 416. 
Electric welding, 425-430. 
Electro-gold plating, 277. 
Electrohephestos, 427-430. 
Electrolysis, protecting iron and steel 
by, 379, 380. 
refining silver by, 421. 
Electro-plated ware, to remove tarnish 

from, 327. 
Electroplating, coloring, bronzing, en- 
amelling, etc., etc., of metals, 378- 
390. 
glass and porcelain, 403. 
to make gold solution for, 339, 340. 
to make silver solution for, 340. 
with aluminium, 385. 
with bismuth, 385, 386. 
with nickel, 387. 
with the platinum metals, 386. 
Electro-silver plating, 277. 
Electrum, 324. 

Elkington's patent gilding, 277. 
Ellipse or oval, to describe an, 5. 
to describe an, 6, 7. 
to describe an, by means of a car- 
penter's square, 40, 41. 
to draw a, by means of two concen- 
tric circles, 39, 40. 
to draw a, with rule and compasses, 

38, 39. 
to find the area of an, 7. 
to find the centre and the two axes 

of a, 41. 
to find the circumference of an, 7. 
Ellipses, epitome of mensuration of, 47. 
to compute the transverse strength 
of, 106. 
Emery wheels, dentist's, 324. 
wheels for polishing, 274. 
Enamelled cast-iron, 273. 
Enamelling, cast-iron, 381. 

coloring, bronzing, electroplating, 

etc., of metals, 378-390. 
gold and silver, 342, 343. 



460 



INDEX. 



Enamelling masses for utensils and sheet 
iron, 381. 
of cast-iron and hollow ware, 273. 
of copper and other vessels, 273, 274. 
on gold and copper, 275, 276. 
Engine boilers, mensuration of, 52, 53. 

room repairs, 207-209. 
Engines, non-condensing, nominal horse- 
power of several, 54. 
Engineers, wrinkles for, 197-210. 
English stones, transverse strength of, 

101. 
Engravings, varnish for adhering them 

to wood, 349. 
Entomologist's cement, 347. 
Epitome of mensuration, 44-47. 
Equations and proportions, explanation 

of, 173-175. 
Etching fluid for ivory, 314. 
liquid for steel, 419. 
on glass, 280. 
varnish, 280. 
Etruscan gold coloring, 327. 
Expansion, linear, of solids, 191-193. 

with equal volumes of steam, effect 
of, 57. 
Explanation of diagrams, 3-23. 

Fahlun brilliants, 366. 
Fahrenheit's thermometer, 242. 
Fairbairn, Cubitt, Hughes, Stephenson, 
etc., deductions from experiments 
of, 111, 112. 
Feathers, scouring and bleaching of, 449. 
Fenton's antifriction metal. 260. 
Ferro-manganese, 362. 
Figures, to cast, in imitation of ivory, 

326. 
Files, diamond, to make, 336. 
old, how to recut, 264, 265. 
old, to renovate, 416. 
pivot, to make, 336. 
recutting of, by electricity, 416. 
Finishing and draw filing, 345. 

polish, 302. 
Fire-bricks and their properties, 233. 
-extinguishing agents, 399. 
-extinguishing and fire-proofing me- 
diums, 399-401. 
Fire-proof crucibles, bricks, etc., prepara- 
tion of, 401. 
-proof safes, hardening and filling for, 
270. 
Fire-proofing and fire-extinguishing me- 
diums, 399-401. 
mediums, 399-401. 
Fish and game, trapper's and angler's 
secret for, 316. 
oil paints, 292. 
varnish for, 350. 
Flange joint, that will not leak or burn 

out, 417. 
Flaring vessel pattern, to describe a, 15. 

vessel, to strike the side of a, 18. 
Flask glass, 319. 

Flexure, resistance of bodies to, 131. 
Floated coat, 63. 



Floor beam, to compute the depth of a, 

112, 113. 
Floor beams, stress borne by, 112. 
Flooring, measurement of, 74, 75. 
Floors, hard wood, waxing of, 374. 
inlaid, novelty in, 377. 
strength of, 122. 
Florentine marble, 408. 
Flour mills, power required for, 84, 85. 
mills, saw mills, wood-working ma- 
chinery, 84-86. 
Fluoric acid, to make, 281 
Fluxes for soldering or welding, 90. 
Follower, to compute the number of teeth 

in a, 150. 
Force, centrifugal, 139. 
Fort Richmond, concrete used in the con- 
struction of, 64. 
Tompkins, concrete used in the con- 
struction of, 64. 
Foundations, digging for, 73. 
Frame dams, 322, 323. 
Frames, gilt, reviver of, 306. 

wood, gilding of. 376, 377. 
French burnished gilding, 304, 305. 
concrete, 397. 
polishes, 302, 303, 406, 407. 
Friction, 139. 

Frigorific mixtures, 193-196. 
Frost crystals, imitation of, 447. 
Frosted glass, 402. 

Frustum of a cone, contents in gallons of 
the, 23, 24. 
of a cone, to construct the, 21. 
or cone, rule for striking out a, 22. 
or cone, to describe a, 16. 
Frustums, epitome of mensuration of, 47. 
Fuel, gain in, and initial pressure of steam 
required when acting expansively, 
57, 58. 
Fumigating, pastiles for, 351. 
Fur and other skins, fifty dollar receipt 

for tanning of, 310, 311. 
Furnace pipe, crooked, 168, 169. 

pipe, round, 167, 168. 
Furniture and wainscoting, new oak, to 
give an antique appearance to, 
371. 
cream, 303. 
fillings, 303. 
oii, 325, 326. 
oils, 303. 

old, polish for reviving, 302. 
polish, 303, 407. 

polish for removing stains, spots, and 
mildew from, 302. 
Furs or woolens, prevention of moths in, 

316, 317. 
Fusee, to prevent a chain running off the, 

333. 
Fuses, electrical, detonating composition 

for, 446, 447. 
Fusible alloys, 248, 367, 368. 
compounds, 89. 

Gallon or inch, decimal equivalents to the 
fractional parts of a, 27, 28. 



INDEX. 



461 



Gallons, imperial, 88. 

Game and fish, trapper's and angler's 

secret for, 316. 
Garden stands, green paint for, 288, 289. 
Gases and vapors, weight and specific 

gravity of, 187. 
Gasfitter's cement, 269. 

-holders, 244, 245. 
Gas, to purify, 263. 

Gauge points, table of, for the common 
slide-rule, 51. 

points, table of, for the engineer's 
rule, 51. 
Gauging of casks, 160-163. 
Gear cutting, 343, 344. 

measuring of a, to find the number 
of teeth, 344. 
Gears, depth of teeth in, 344. 
Geometry, practical, 34-43. 
German crystal glass, 319. 

silver alloy, 366. 

silver, compositions of, 248. 

silver, fine white, 255. 

silver, various compositions of, 165, 
367. 
Giffard's injector, 60. 
Gilder's gold size, 285. 

pickle, 287. 
Gilding china and glass, 281. 

coloring of, 278. 

Elkington's, 277. 

French burnished, 304, 305. 

glass signs, etc., 285. 

of glass and porcelain, 284. 

of wood moulding, cornices and 
frames, 376, 377. 

on wood, 306. 

or bronzing wood, 305. 

to detect alloys in, 417. 
Gillmore, General, experiments of, 67. 

notes by, 69. 
Gilt frames, reviver of, 306. 

wares, metal for, 253. 
Girders and joints, measurement of, 74. 

cast-iron, transverse strength of, 115. 

transverse strength of, 108-110. 
Girder, stress borne by a, 112, 113. 

to compute the dimensions and form 
of a, 110, 111. 
Glass and brass, cement for, 394. 

and china, gilding of, 281. 

and mirror plates, new method of 
deadening and graining, 402. 

and porcelain, electroplating of, 403. 

and porcelain gilding, 284. 

cement, 368. 

colored, 325. 

crown, 319. 

crystal, 318. 

cutting by electricity, 402. 

etching on, 280. 

flask, 319. 

for bottles, 318. 

frosted, 402. 

German crystal, 319. 

globes, liquid foil for silvering, 262. 

grinding for signs, shades, etc., 281. 



Glass, how to photograph on, 317, 318. 

how to write on, in the sun, 317. 

linear expansion of, by heat, 193. 

pencil for writing on, 403. 

pigments for staining, 282, 283. 

plate, 319. 

porcelain, etc., 402, 403. 

signs, gilding of, 285. 

soluble, 284. 

staining, 281, 282. 

to cut, without a diamond, 343. 

to drill, 402. 

to drill and ornament, 285. 

to transfer prints to, 317. 

transparent cement for, 347. 

utensils, to file, 402. 

varnish for, to preserve from the rays 
of the sun, 349. 

window, 319, 320. 
Glassware, cement for, 347, 394. 
Glazier's putty, 292. 

work, measurement of, 79. 
Glue, 290. 

cheap water-proof, 290. 

fire and water-proof, 290. 

for damp places, 396. 

prepared liquid, 290, 291. 

strong, for veneering, 287. 
Glues, 348, 349. 
Glycerine for sharpening edge tools, 421. 

some of its practical uses, 451. 
Gold, alloy resembling, 364, 365. 

alloys for, 250, 251. 

amalgam, to make, 341. 

amalgam, to plate with, 341. 

and aluminium, alloy of, 358, 359. 

and copper, enamelling on, 275, 276. 

and silver ink, 281. 

and silver, polishing powder for, 278. 

and silver, refining of, 274, 275. 

and silver, to enamel, 342, 343. 

and silver, to separate from lace, 279. 

and silver with copper, alloys of, 
365. 

artificial, 251. 

assaying of, by annealing, 275. 

colored, 250. 

common, 250. 

containing palladium, assaying of, 
275. 

eighteen carat for rings, 329. 

electroplating with, 277. 

Etruscan coloring, 327. 

factitious, 250. 

four carat, 329. 

green, to heighten the color of, 278 

hard soldering of, 339. 

Harmstadt's true imitation of, 251. 

imitations of, 329. 

jeweller's composition of, 250. 

lacquer, 297. 

leaf, how to handle and lay, 408, 409. 

lustre for stoneware, china, etc., 281. 

mountings, how to fasten a ribbon 
into, 415. 

oroide of, 329. 

paint, to conceal soft solder, 444. 



462 



INDEX 



Gold plate, French, 252. 

plating powders, to make and apply, 

342. 
plating solution, to make and apply, 

341. 
powder, Dutch, 304. 
powder, true, 303, 304. 
red, to heighten the color of, 278. 
size, gilder's, 285. 
solders, 249, 329. 
solution for electroplating, to make, 

339, 340. 
tarnished in soldering, to cleanse, 

339. 
to make platinum adhere to, 443. 
to recover fiom gilt metal, 279. 
to refine, 338. 
to remove from the surface of silver, 

278. 
to remove tarnish from, after hard 

soldering, 444. 
varnish, 296, 297, 307, 308. 
varnish of Watin, 298. 
workers, polishing powder for, 411. 
yellow, to heighten the color of, 278. 
Gong metal, Chinese, 252. 
Gongs, alloy for, 165. 
Granades, hand, for extinguishing fire, 

399. 
Granite, 74. 

polishing of, 414, 415. 
Grates, Brunswick black for, 269. 
Gravel houses, how to build, 293, 294. 
Gravers and drills, to temper, 279. 

to temper, 334. 
Grease, anti-friction, 352. 

Booth's, for railway axles, 352. 

to extract from marble or stone, 

351 
to remove, 315. 
Greek or Maltha mastic, 346. 
Green bronze dip, 258. 

durable and cheap, 291. 
Grindstones, to make from common sand, 

320. 
Gudgeons and wheels, 157, 158. 
Gumming, preparation of dextrin solu- 
tion for, 398. 
Gums, diseased and inflamed, remedy 

for, 451. 
Gun barrels, browning for, 269, 270, 348. 
barrels, varnish for, after browning, 

350. 
metal, 252. 

mountings, alloy for, 252. 
stocks, varnish and polish for, 270. 
Guns, bronzing fluid for, 254. 

Hadfield's manganese steel, 362. 
Hair spring, to weaken, 334. 
springs, to reduce, 252. 
Hand granades for extinguishing fire, 

399. 
Hard finish, 64. 

soldering gold, silver, copper, brass, 

iron, steel or platina, 339. 
solders, table of, 442. 



Hardening and tempering cast-steel, 325. 
compound used in Damascus sword 
blades, 348. 
Harmstadt's true imitation of gold, 251. 

true imitation of silver, 251. 
Harness, blacking for, 351. 

boot and shoe edge, colors for, 306. 
leather, calf and kip, tanning of, in 

thirty days, 309. 
leather, grain black for, 308. 
varnishes for, 307, 349. 
Heart, to describe a, 17. 
Heat, cold, light, etc., rules relating to, 
189-196. 
conducting power of bodies, 191. 
linear expansion of solids by, 191-193. 
Heating steel, 418, 419. 
Hectograph paper sheets, 447. 
Heel ball, shoemaker's, 307. 
Height, mode of calculating the, of an 

object, 241. 
Hemp and wire ropes, 91. 
Hexagon, regular, to describe a, within 

a circle, 36. 
Hipped roofs, mill hoppers, etc., 23. 
Hole, boring a, with a boring tool, 345, 
346. 
to drill a, without reaming, 345. 
Holes, boring of, with boring arbor, 346. 
Horn, bone and ivory, dyes for, 314. 

buttons, to make iridescent, 369, 370. 
in imitation of tortoise shell, 313. 
Horse-power, 53. 

effective, for motors, 87. 

indicated, 55. 

indicated, required for different 

processes, 84, 85. 
nominal, 53, 54. 
nominal, of several non-condensing 

engines, 54. 
to find the, that any wheel will 

transmit, 158. 
to find the size of teeth necessary to 
transmit a given, 157, 158. 
Hose, rubber, to repair, 391. 
House bells, alloy for, 165. 
Houses and barns, best wash for, 288. 

mastic cement for fronts of, 294. 
Hughes, Stephenson, Fairbairn, Cubitt, 
etc., deductions from experiments 
of, 111,112. 
Hydraulic, 64. 

cement, or Turkish plaster, 62. 
cement paint, 347. 
ram, 87. 
Hydro-carbon oils, points to be consid- 
ered in judging, 219, 220. 
Hyperbolic logarithms, table of, 56, 57. 

Ice and snow, 202, 203. 

strength of, 119. 
Impressions, metal for taking, 248. 
Inch or gallon, decimal equivalents tq 

the fractional parts of an, 27, 28. 
Incombustible wick, 451. 
Incrustation of boilers, 324, 325. 
Indelible ink for marking linen, etc., 348. 



INDEX 



463 



India ink, and how it is made, 444, 445. 

ink, fixing of, 445. 
Indicator, how to attach the, 215-217. 
steam engine, the, 210-218. 
technical terms used in connection 
with the employment of the, 211- 
213. 
Injector, Giffard's, 60. 
Ink eraser, 450. 

gold and silver, 281. 
perpetual, for tombstones, etc., 315. 
rubber stamp, 392. 
stains, to remove, 352. 
Inks, 348. 

Inlaid floor, novelty in, 377. 
Instrumental arithmetic, 48-52. 
Instruments, mechanical, alloy for, 253. 
musical, stains for, 299. 
philosophical, lacquer for, 258. 
Iron alloy, 368. 

and aluminium, alloys of, 360. 
and steel, brush coppering for, 384. 
and steel, nickelling polished articles 

of, 388, 389. 
and steel, protection of, by electro- 
lysis, 379, 380. 
and steel, varnish for articles of, 350. 
bar of, strength of, 122. 
black for, 264. 
brassing of, 273. 
bronze-colored coating of oxide upon, 

380. 
bronze paint for, 258. 
bronzing of, 304. 
case-hardening for, 265. 
Cast and malleable, relative strength 

of, 108-113. 
cast, composition of, 224. 
cast, crushing strength of, 116. 
cast, effect of remelting on the 

strength of, 225. 
cast, tensile strength of, 94, 95. 
cast, to soften for drilling, 266. 
cast, weight of a foot of, 143. 
cast, weight of a superficial foot of, 

144. 
castings, to bronze, 257. 
chains, weight and strength of, 127. 
flat bar, weight of 1 foot of, 141. 
flat cast, weight of a foot in length 

of, 145. 
founding, alloy for moulds for, 366, 

367. 
hard soldering of, 339. 
lustre, 264. 
malleable, case-hardening for, 265, 

266. 
mixture of cast and wrought, etc., 

transverse strength of, 101. 
mould, old, to remove, 351. 
moulds, to remove, 352. 
or steel, detection of, 416. 
or steel, method of ascertaining the 

quality of, 416, 417. 
or steel, to remove rust from, 330. 
or steel, to soften, 262. 
or steel, transparent blue for, 267. 



Iron paint, compound, 288. 

palmitate varnish for water-proofing 
paper, tissues, etc., 404. 

pig, conditions governing the pro- 
duction of, 223, 224. 

plate, weight of 1 square foot of, 142. 

poor, to improve, 265. 

Russia sheet, 142. 

sheet, weight of 1 square foot of, 141. 

silvering of, 390. 

square and round bar, weight of, 142. 

steel or iron wire, to copper the sur- 
face of, 268. 

Stirling's mixed or toughened, 95. 

tinning of, 259. 

to case-harden, 328. 

to color, 381. 

to galvanize, 261. 

to prevent rusting of, 351. 

to remove rust from, 422. 

to tin for soldering, 268. 

varnish for, 264. 

ware, to mend, 347. 

wire, tensile strength of, 435. 

work, black varnish for, 266. 

work, bright, lacquer for, 348. 

works, data, 84. 

wrought, case-hardening for, 266. 

wrought, crushing strength of, 116. 

wrought, tensile strength of, 95. 

wrought, tie rods, tensile strength of, 
98. 

wrought, transverse strength of, 101. 
Italian pink marble, 408. 
Ivory and bone, to stain brown, 369. 

etching fluid for, 314. 

gloss on wood, 372. 

horn and bone, dyes for, 314. 

mother-of-pearl, wood, bone, 369- 
378. 

ornaments, to clean, 370. 

to bleach, 314. 

to cast figures in imitation of, 326. 

to gild, 314. 

to silver, 287. 

to soften, 314. 

to whiten, 314. 

Japan coloring, for leather, book covers, 
etc., 313. 

dryer, 293, 409. 

flow for tin, 267. 

liquid, for leather, 307. 
Japanese cement, or rice glue, 348. 
Japanner's copal varnish, 297, 298. 
Jet or polish for wood or leather, 302. 

pump, 88. 
Jeweller's alloys, 329. 

Armenian cement, 279. 

soldering fluid, 259. 

Turkish cement, 279. 
Jewelry, old, reviver of, 279. 
Johnstone's fire -tinguishing agent, 399. 
Joiners' and r penters' work, measure- 
ment ol ' 7 4-76. 
Joints and girders, measurement of, 74. 
Joists, measurement of, 75. 



464 



INDEX 



Journal boxes, alloy for, 261. 

boxes, anti-friction metal for, 260. 
hot, to cool a, 203. 

Kerosene oil, simple test of, 222. 
Keystones, to compute the depth of, 83. 
Khorassar, or Turkish mortar, 63. 
Kip, calf and harness leather, tanning of, 

in thirty days, 309. 
Kustitien's metal for tinning, 260. 

Labels, copal varnish for, 407. 

mucilage for attaching to tin, 397, 
398. 
Laborers, proportion of, in different 

soils, 118. 
Lace, to separate gold and silver from, 

279. 
Lacquer, best, for brass, 258. 
color for, 258. 

deep gold colored, 257, 296. 
directions for making, 256. 
for bronzed brass, 257. 
for dipped brass, 256, 257. 
for philosophical instruments, 258. 
gold colored for brass not dipped, 

257. 
gold colored for dipped brass, 257. 
gold, for brass, 257. 
gold, for tin, 268. 
good, 257. 
pale, for brass, 257. 
pale, for tin plate, 257. 
red, for brass, 257. 
Lacquers, 348. 

paints, varnishes, etc., 403-410. 
Lap and lead of locomotive valves, com- 
putation of the, 60. 
computations of, 58. 
Lath and plaster, materials and labor for 

100 square yards of, 64. 
Lathe bushes, alloy for, 165. 
Lathes, screw-cutting, change wheels in, 

155-157. 
Lead and lap of locomotive valves, com- 
putation of the, 60. 
antimony and tin, alloys of, 366, 367. 
brass, copper and steel, weight of a 

foot of, 144. 
chloride, dry, soldering with, 443. 
pipe, patent improved, sizes and 

weight per foot of, 144. 
pipes, 255. 
plates, to joint, 263. 
shot, 255. 

white, substitute for, 289. 
Leagues, length of different, 240. 
Leather and wood, stains for, 308. 

belting, rubber soles and leather, 

cement for, 307. 
book covers, etc., Japan coloring for, 

313 
dyeing of, 307. 
dyes for, 311, 312. 
French finish for, 309. 
French patent, 309, 310. 
French polish or dressing for, 311. 



Leather, liquid japan for, 307. 
or wood, jet or polish for, 302. 
rubber soles and leather belting, 

cement for, 307. 
to fasten, to cast-iron, 394. 
varnish for fastening on top rollers, 
349. 
Legal ohm and Siemens' unit of resistance^ 

definition of, 242. 
Letters on wood, to gild, 285, 286. 
Lever escapement, to change depth of, 
332, 333. 
pallets, to tell when of proper size, 

333. 
to compute power necessary to raise 

a weight with a, 240, 241. 
to tell when it is of the proper length, 
332. 
Levers of anchor-escapement watches, 
to lengthen without hammering or 
soldering, 326. 
Light, heat, cold, etc., rules relating to, 

189-196. 
Lights, size and number of, to the 100 

square feet, 79. 
Limes, cements, mortars and concretes, 

62-70. 
Lime, slacking of, 68. 

water required for, 74. 
Line, a given, to draw a polygon of any 
number of sides on, 37, 38. 
a given, to divide into any number 

of parts, equal or unequal, 36, 37. 
shrinkage of, 74. 
Lines, curved, method of drawing, 38. 
Lining metal, to make, 345. 
Linseed oil, fictitious, 296. 
Lintels, transverse strength of, 108-110. 
Lipowitz's alloy, 368. 
Lip to a measure, to describe a, 14. 
Liquid, browning or bronzing, 347. 
glue, 349. 
red, 309. 
Liquids, boiling points of, 188. 

weight and specific gravity of, 186, 
187. 
Lithographs, varnish for adhering them 

to wood, 349. 
Load, to find the size of teeth, to carry a 

given, 158. 
Locomotive axle-trees, socket metal for, 
253. 
brass castings, 364. 
valves, to compute the lap and lead 
of, 60. 
Locomotives, alloys for various parts of, 
253. 
bearing metals for, 364. 
Logarithms, hyperbolic, table of, 56, 57. 
Log or brush dams, 323, 324. 
Logs reduced to one inch board measure, 

146. 
Looking glasses, silvering of, 283. 

glass plate, 319. 
Lord, George W., of Philadelphia, boiler 

compound of, 245, 246. 
Lubricating oils, 218-222, 264. 



INDEX 



465 



Luminosity at high temperatures, 189. 
Luminous point, 90. 



Machine cutters, sharpening angles of, 

86. 
Machinery bearings, alloy for, 165. 

to lessen friction in, 325. 
Machines, alloys for bearings of rapidly 
running, 364. 
models proportioned to, 123, 124. 
putting together, 345. 
Magic paper, 320. 
Magnets, tempering of, 421. 
Majolica and porcelain, to drill, 402, 403. 
Malleable bronze, 362, 363. 
Maltha or Greek mastic, 346. 
Manganese alloys, 361, 362. 

steel, 362. 
Manilla rope, table of, 124. 
Manufacture of wire, 430-437. 
Marble, alabaster or stone, stains for, 
315. 
blocks of, measurement of, 73, 74. 
cement for, 315, 347. 
colors for staining, 315. 
imitation, 399. 

ornaments, to clean, 413, 414. 
or stone, to extract grease from, 351. 
paper, varnishing of, 408. 
perpetual ink for, 348. 
saw, power required for, 91. 
to clean, 315, 351. 
to cut and polish, 315. 
worker's cement for, 347. 
Marbles, for books, etc., 312, 313. 
Marbling, 408. 

books or paper, 312. 
Marine glue, 349. 

Marking ink stains, to remove, 352. 
Masonry, cost of, per cubic yard, and 
volume of mortar required for, 70. 
tensile strength of, 65, 66. 
Masons' work, measurement of, 73, 74. 
Mastic, 69. 

cement for fronts of houses, 294. 
Maltha or Greek, 346. 
Materials, relative stiffness of, 100. 

strength and other properties of, 91- 

138, 224-240. 
tensile strength of, 96-98. 
to compute the relative value of, to 

resist a transverse strain, 107. 
various, crushing strength of, 116. 
Mattolein or dull lacquer, 405. 
Measure, lip to a, to describe, 14. 
Measurement of bricklayers' work, 71. 
of carpenters' and joiners' work, 74- 

76. 
of glaziers' work, 79. 
of masons' work, 73, 74. 
of painters' work, 79, 80. 
of pavers' work, 78. 
of plasterers' work, 78. 
of plumbers' work, 80. 
of slaters' work, 76, 77. 
of wells and cisterns, 73. 



Measurements, comparative linear, 240. 
power, miscellaneous rules for com- 
puting, 240-244. 
Measures and weights, metric system of, 

114. 
Mechanical instruments, alloy for, 253. 
Medals, bronze for, 254. 
Melting points of metals, 252. 

zinc, 420. 
Mensuration, epitome of, 44-47. 
of solidity and capacity, 52-55. 
of surface, 50, 51. 
Metal and stone, 410-441. 

and stone work, cleaning, 413. 

button-maker's, 253. 

cast, to compute the weight of, 121. 

cement, 395. 

fine silver colored, 248. 

for anatomical injections, 255. 

for gilt wares, 253. 

for impressions, 248. 

for lining, to make, 345. 

for reflectors, 253. 

for shot, 253. 

for toys, 366. 

hard white, 248. 

molten, rolled bars, direct from, 422- 

424. 
readily fusible, 368. 
that expands on cooling, 165. 
yellow dipping, 255. 
Metallic cement, 368. 

oxides, to reduce, 272. 
Metals, action of oils upon, 218, 219. 
approved coatings for, 379. 
bronzing, coloring, electroplating, 

enamelling, etc,, of, 378-390. 
cheap mode of coating with platinum, 

386. 
cold silvering on, 278. 
linear expansion of, by heat, 191, 

192. 
lustre of, 91. 
melting points of, 252. 
paste for cleaning, 352. 
planing of, 343. 
polishing agents for, 410-413. 
relative strength of, to resist torsion, 

133. 
rouge for polishing, 412, 413. 
table of the strength, extensibility 

and stiffness of, 225. 
tensile strength of, 96. 
transparent varnish for. 407. 
transverse strength of, 101. 
ultimate tensile strength of, 227, 228. 
variation in tensile force of, 95. 
various, crushing strength of, 116. 
volume, weight and specific gravity 

of, 178, 179. 
weight and volume of, 140. 
writing inscriptions on, 266. 
Metric system of measures and weights, 

114. 
Miles, length of different, 240. 
Milk-can, pattern for top of, 170-172. 
paint for barns, 289. 



466 



INDEX. 



Milk, painting in, 288. 
Mill dams, 321-324. 

hoppers, 23. 
Millstone, fitting a new back in an old, 

320, 321 
Millstones, to fill holes in, 320. 
Mineral substances, sundry, volume, 
weight and specific gravity of, 181, 
182. 
Mining, 86. 

and blasting, 86. 
Minofor metal, 366. 
Mira metal, 363. 
Mirror and glass plates, new method of 

deadening and graining, 402. 
Mirrors, amalgam for, 253. 
Miscellaneous notes, 90, 91, 351-353, 444- 
451. 
substances, tensile strength of, 97. 
Mixtures, frigorific, 193-196. 
Models proportioned to machines, 123, 

124. 
Modulus of cohesion, 94. 

of elasticity, definition and compu- 
tation of the, 92, 93. 
Moisture, glue to resist, 349. 
Mordant varnish, 298. 
Mortar making, 396. 

materials required for 27 cubic feet of, 

74. 
pointing, 69, 70. 
Roman, 396. 
Turkish, 63. 

volume of, required for masonry, 
70. 
Mortars, cements, mucilage, paste, plas- 
ter of paris, 393-399. 
concretes, cements and limes, 62-70. 
tensile strength of, 65, 66. 
transverse strength of, 64, 65. 
Mosaic gold powder for bronzing, 303. 
Moss, to color, 449, 450. 
Mother-of-pearl, bone, ivory, wood, 369- 
378. 
-of-pearl, dyeing, 370. 
Moths, prevention of, in furs or woolens, 

316. 
Motors, effective horse-power for, 87. 
Moulding, raking, to find form or curva- 
ture of a, to unite with a level one, 
42, 43. 
sand, to prevent the baking of, 419, 

420. 
wood, gilding of, 376, 377. 
Moulds and dies, 278. 

for iron founding, alloy for, 366, 
367. 
Mucilage, cements, mortars, paste, 
plaster of paris, 393-399. 
elastic, 398. 

for attaching labels to tin, 397, 398. 
Multipliers, convenient, 240. 
Munich fire-extinguishing agent, 399. 
Muntz metal, 165. 
Muntz's metal for ships, 261. 
Mural efflorescences, 70. 
Music plate metal, 366. 



Nails, American iron machine-cut, num- 
ber of, in a pound, 76. 
number of, for shingling, 76. 
weight of, 129. 
Naples yellow, 292. 

Natural history, preservative paste for 
objects of, 352. 
history, varnish for objects of, 350. 
New alloys, 364. 
Newton's metal, 368 

Nickel and aluminium bronze alloys, 
358. 
bath, a new, 387, 388. 
electroplating with, 387. 
plated articles, rust, to remove from, 

416. 
plating, conditions for the produc- 
tion of a beautiful and durable 
coating, 387. 
plating, to imitate, 389. 
to coat zinc with, 389. 
to unite with platinum, 386, 387. 
watch movements, to renovate, 415. 
with copper, alloys of, 367. 
Nickelling of polished articles of iron 
and steel, 388, 389. 
tin-lead alloys, 388. 
Nitrate of silver stains, to remove, 352. 
Noble metals, polishing agents for, 411, 

412. 
Nominal horse's power, 53, 54. 

horse-power of several non-condens- 
ing engines, 54. 
Non-magnetic alloys, 365. 
Northern light burning fluid, 329. 
Nozzles, fire-proof material for, 401. 
Numbers, to divide upon the rule, 49. 
to find geometrical mean proportion 

between two, 50. 
to multiply by the rule, 48, 49. 
square and cube roots of, 49. 
Numeration, 48. 

Oak, stain for, 371. 

Octagon, regular, formation of a, from a 

square, 36. 
Ohm, legal, and Siemens, unit of resist- 
ance, definition of, 242. 
Oil, cleaning, 450. 

canisters, tin required far, 27. 
fictitious linseed, 296. 
kerosene, simple test of, 222. 
lubricating, patent, 264. 
paintings, to clean, 326. 
paintings, to renew, 326. 
paint, to reduce with water, 293. 
prepared, for carriages, 293. 
to properly, 337. 

watch-maker's, which never corrodes 
or thickens, 352. 
Oils, action of, upon metals, 218, 219. 
hydrocarbon, points to be considered 

in judging, 219, 220. 
lubricating, 218-222. 
lubricating, comparative values of, 

222. 
lubricating, flashing points of, 222. 



INDEX. 



467 



Oils, lubricating, points to be considered 
in the purchase of, 218. 

tests of the viscosity of, 221. 
Olive bronze dip, for brass, 258. 
Olszewsky and Bernados' process of 

electric welding, 427-430. 
One-coat work, 63. 
Oreide, 165. 

Paris, 367. 
Organ-pipe metal, 366. 

-pipes, alloy for, 255. 
Ormolu dipping, to prepare brass work 
for, 256. 

dips, old nitric acid, to repair, 256. 
Oroide of gold, 329. 
Oval boiler cover, to describe, 13. 

or ellipse, to describe an, 5. 

to draw an, with square and circle, 

172, 173. 
Oxides, metallic, to reduce, 272. 

of zinc, to reduce, 329, 330. 

Packfong, 367. 

Pails, pitched covers for, to describe, 

12, 13. 
Paint, cheap yellow, 292. 

durable outside, 288. 

farmers', 288. 

flexible for canvas, 294. 

for window glass, 351. 

green, for garden stands, blinds, etc., 
288, 289. 

green, for walls, 289, 290. 

premium, without oil or lead, 288. 

stone-color, 292. 

to remove from a wooden carving 
without damaging the wood, 378. 

without lead or oil, 289. 
Painter's cream, 294. 

work, measurement of, 79, 80. 
Paints, different sorts of, 289. 

fish oil, 292. 

lacquers, varnishes, etc., 403-410. 
Painting brick work, 350. 

in milk, 288. 

requirements for good, 350. 

zinc, to prepare for, 410. 
Paper bags, paste for, 398. 

drawing, to take creases out, 448. 

for draughtsmen, 351. 

for photographing, 317. 

magic, 320. 

or books, to marble, 312. 

or wood, crystalline coating upon, 
372. 

paste for fastening upon tin foil, 398. 

rust-proof wrapping, 447. 

to make into parchment, 313. 

water-proof, 448. 

water-proof packing, preparation of, 
447, 448. 
Parchment, glue for, 348. 

to make paper into, 313. 
Paris argentan, 367. 

oreide, 367. 
Parisian bronze dip, 258. 
Parlors, porcelain finish for, 292, 293. 



Partitioning, weight of a square of, 76. 
Partitions, measurement of, 75. 
Paste, cements, mortars, mucilage, 
plaster of paris, 393-399. 
durable, 351. 
for cleaning metals, 352. 
for fastening paper upon tin foil, etc., 

398. 
for paper bags, 398. 
preservative, for objects of natural 

history, 352. 
for preserving the gloss of patent 

leather, 398. 
polishing for brass, 412. 
Pastiles for fumigating, 351. 
Patent leather, paste for preserving the 
gloss of, 398. 
yellow, 291. 
Patents, dimensions of drawings for, 90. 
Pattern-cutting, triangulation in, ex- 
plained, 170-172. 
Patterns, smooth moulding, varnish for, 
264. 
to mend, 421, 422. 
Pavers' work, measurement of, 78. 
Pea brown, 291. 

Pedestal, good proportions of a, 139. 
Pediment, open or broken, to find form 
or curvature of the return in a, 43. 
Pencil for writing on glass, etc., 403. 
Pentagon, regular, to inscribe a, within a 

circle, 35. 
Perpetual ink for tombstones, marble, 

etc., 348. 
Pewter, 366. 

alloys for, 165. 
best, 259. 
common, 259. 
Pewterer's soft solder, 249. 

solder, 259. 
Phosphor bronze, 360, 361. 

-bronze wire, tensile strength of, 
435. 
Photographing on glass, 317, 318. 

paper for, 317. 
Pickle, gilder's, 287. 
Picture frames, renovating of, 450. 

to print a, from the print itself, 326. 
Pig-iron, conditions governing the pro- 
duction of, 223, 224. 
Pigments for stained glass, 282, 283. 
Pile-driver, force of, 90. 
Pinchbeck, 248. 
Pine-wood, to prevent exudations of 

turpentine from, 377, 378. 
Pinion, to compute the diameter of a, 
151. 
to compute the number of teeth in a, 

150. 
to compute the proportional radius 

of a, 150. 
to compute the revolutions of a, 151. 
to compute the velocity of a, 151, 
152. 
Pinions, staffs or cylinders, to temper, 
without springing them, 335. 
worn, to remedy, 337. 



468 



INDEX. 



Pipes, cast-iron, computation of weights 
of, 91. 
drainage of land by, 80. 
of various metals, to ascertain the 

weight of, 25. 
to compute the weight of, 241, 242. 
wrought-iron, coating to protect 
against rust, 381. 
Pipe, wrought-iron, table of weights of, 

242. 
Pise, 69. 

Piston areas, gross power from, 203. 
packing rings, alloy for, 364. 
portion of the stroke of a, at which 
the exhausting port is closed and 
opened, 59. 
Pitched covers for pails, to describe, 12, 

13. 
Pitch of a wheel, to compute the, 149. 
of wheels, 154. 

true or chordial, to compute the, 149, 
150. 
Pith for cleaning, 332. 
Pivot files, to make, 336. 

holes, bushing alloy for, 329. 
to, 332. 
wood, 332. 
Planing metals, 343. 

Plaster and lath, materials and labor for 
100 square yards of, 64. 
casts, bronzing of, 304. 
casts, varnish for, 298. 
exterior, or stucco, 62, 63. 
of Paris cast, to take a, from a 

person's face, 325. 
of Paris, cements, mortars, mucilage, 

paste, 393-399. 
of Paris, new method of hardening 

and coloring, 398, 399. 
of Paris, substitute for, 290. 
Turkish, 62. 
Plastering, 70. 
interior, 63. 
materials required for 100 square 

yards of, 243. 
outside brick walls, 397. 
Plasterer's work, measurement of, 78. 
Plate-glass, 319. 

Plates, wrought-iron, crushing strength 
of, 118. 
wrought-iron, proportions and 
strength of single-riveted joints in, 
226. 
Plating with a battery, 340, 341. 
Platinum, cheap mode of coating metals 
with, 386. 
hard soldering of, 339. 
imitation of, 255. 

metals, electroplating with the, 386. 
to make, adhere to gold, 443. 
to unite nickel, etc., with, 386, 387. 
Ploughs, transparent varnish for, 298. 
Plumber's cement, 269. 
solder, 442. 

work, measurement of, 80. 
Pointing mortar, 69, 70. 
Polish and varnish for gun stocks, 270. 



Polish for turner's work, 297. 

French, 406, 407. 

French, for leather, 311. 

furniture, 407. 
Polishes, 302. 
Polishing and coloring brass, 382, 383. 

agents for metals, 410-413. 

balls for silver, 412. 

broaches, to make, 336. 

emery wheels for, 274. 

granite, 414, 415. 

paste for brass, 412. 

pomade for silver, 412. 

pomades, 411. 

powder for gold-workers, 411. 

powder for silver and gold, 278. 

powders, 411. 

powders for silver, 411, 412. 

rags, 411. 

soaps, 410, 411. 

to prepare a burnisher for, 337. 

water, 411. 
Polygons, epitome of mensuration of, 
46, 47. 

regular, table of areas of, 47. 
Pomade, polishing, for silver, 412. 
Pomades, polishing (putz), 411. 
Porcelain and glass, electroplating of, 
403. 

and glass gilding, 2^4. 

and majolica, to drill, 402, 403. 

colors, 283, 284. 

finish for parlors, 292, 293. 

glass, etc., 402, 403. 

letters, cement to fasten, 394. 

ovens, to determine the temperature 

of, 189, 190. 
Posts, to ascertain the breadth of, 59, 
60. 

wooden, to preserve, 371. 
Potter's invisible water-proofing for 

clothing, 316. 
Powder, smokeless and flameless, manu- 
facture of, 445, 446. 
Powders, polishing, 411. 
Power of steam-engines, 52. 

measurements, miscellaneous rules 
for computing, 240-244. 

to compute the, necessary to raise a 
weight with a lever, 240, 241. 
Practical geometry, 34-43. 
Precious stones, volume, weight and 

specific gravity of, 180. 
Pressures and speeds, multipliers for 
various, 203. 

to compute the average, 217, 218. 
Prince's metal, 256. 
Printing characters, alloy for, 255. 

ink, Savage's, 320. 

on celluloid, 391. 

rollers, 320. 
Prints, blue, marking on, 448, 449. 

to transfer to glass, 317. 
Prism, to compute the length of a, 94. 
Projection of water, 86, 87. 
Proportion of circles, 4, 5. 

or rule of three, direct, 49. 



INDEX. 



469 



Proportions and equations, explanation 

of, 173-175. 
Prussian blue, 291. 

Pump and pump chambers, alloy for, 
364. 
capacity, how to calculate, 203. 
single acting, table of number of 
gallons discharged per minute, by 
a, 204, 205. 
to find the proper size of a cold 
water, 139. 
Putty, glazier's, 292. 
Putz pomades, 411. 
Puzzuolana, transverse strength of, 64, 

65. 
Pyramid cake, set of patterns for a, 
15, 16. 
or cone, to find the contents of a, 
22. 

Queen's metal, 255, 259, 366. 

Radiating or absorbent and reflective 

powers of substances, 190, 191. 
Radius of a circle, definition of, 14. 
Rags, polishing, 411. 
Railroad cars, lining metal for boxes of, 

248. 
spikes, weight of, 128, 129. 
Railway axles, Booth's grease for, 352. 
bridges, 83. 
tunnels, 84. 
Ram, hydraulic, 87. 
Rare and valuable receipts and tables for 

mechanical purposes, 247-353. 
Rasps, old, to recut, 264, 265. 
Ratchets, clicks, etc., to temper, 335. 
Raw hide, to tan, 309. 
Razors, tempering of, 270, 271. 
Reaumur's thermometer, 242. 
Receipts, rare and valuable, and tables 

for mechanical purposes, 247-353. 
Rectangle, epitome of mensuration of, 

45, 46. 
Rectangles, mensuration of surface of, 50, 

51. 
Red, liquid, 309. 

Red sprinkle for bookbinder's red, 312. 
Refining gold and silver, 274, 275. 
Reflecting and radiating or absorbent 

powers of substances, 190, 191. 
Reflector metal, 253. 
Relative strength of cast and malleable 

iron, 108-113. 
Resin pigments, preparation of, 405, 406. 
Resistance of bodies to flexure by vertical 

pressure, 131. 
tensile, of various substances, ele- 
ments connected with the, 96. 
Retort, for packing the neck of a, 422. 
Return, in open or broken pediment, to 

find form or curvature of, 43. 
Revolving disk, 120. 
Rice glue, or Japanese cement, 348. 

marble, 313. 
Rivers, current in, 90. 
Rivet metals, 248. 



Roads, mastic for, 69. 
Rock dams, 322. 

Roebling, John A., Sons, Co., table of 
iron wire rope manufactured by, 
125. 

notes on the use of wire rope by, 
125-127. 
Rolling mills, power required for, 84. 
Roman cement, 296. 

mortar, 396. 
Roofing cement, 393. 

cheap, 294, 295. 

measurement of, 75, 76. 
Roofs, cement for seams in, 295. 

hipped, 23. 

strength of, 122, 123. 
Rooms, heating of, 61. 
Roots, square and cube, of numbers, 49. 
Rope, Manilla, table of, 124. 

rule for finding strength of, 125. 

wire, working load for, 241. 
Ropes, endless, 91. 

Manilla, strength of, 124. 

preservation of, 446. 

tarring of, 124, 125. 

wire and hemp, 91. 

wire, tensile strength of, 98. 
Rose pink, 291. 
Rose's metal, 368. 

Rouge for polishing metals, 4L2, 413. 
Rubber belting, vulcanized, butt-splicing 
of, 209, 210. 

belts and hose, to repair, 391. 

celluloid, etc., 390-392. 

soles, leather and leather belling, 
cement for, 307. 

stamp ink, 392. 

to connect pieces of, 391, 392. 

to make articles of, odorless, 392. 

type, manufacture of, 392. 
Rubble walls, measurement of, 74. 
Ruby pin, to tighten, 334. 
Rule, common slide, table of gauge 
points fir the, 51. 

engineer's, table of gauge-points for 
the, 51. 

of three inverse, 49. 

or proportion of three direct, 49. 
Rules and tables for artificers, 71-80. 

miscellaneous, for computing meas- 
urements, power, etc., 240-244. 

relating to light, heat, cold, etc., 189- 
196. 
Ruolz metal, 367. 

Rust, coating to protect wrought-iron 
pipes against, 381. 

joint, 346. 

preventives, 440, 441. 

removers, 441. 

solvent for, 422. 

to remove from iron, 422. 

to remove from iron or steel, 330. 

to remove from nickel-plated articles, 
416. 
Rusting, to prevent iron from, 351. 
Rust-proof wrapping paper, 447. 
1 Rudand Co., Vt., slates from, 77. 






470 



INDEX. 



Safety-valve, to find the pressure it takes 
to lift the lever and valve of a, 
207. 
Sails of windmill, to compute the angles 
of, 119. 
to preserve, 352. 
Sand, shrinkage of, 74. 

water required for, 74. 
Saw-mills, power required for, 85. 
Saws, broken, to mend, 266. 
management of, 196, 197. 
tempering of, 261, 270, 271. 
Scale, Vernier, 121. 
Schaefer, Adam, fluid of, for hardening 

steel, 419. 
Scouring and bleaching feathers, 449. 
Scratch coat, 63. 
Screed coat, 63. 
Screeds, 63. 
Screw-cutting lathes, change wheels in, 

155-157. 
Screws, rusted, to loosen, 422. 

to blue evenly, 335, 336. 
Sea-shells, how to polish, 451. 

-water, 202. 
Sector for obtaining angles, 21. 
of a circle, definition of, 14. 
of a circle, to find the area of the, 3. 
Segment of a circle, definition of, 14. 
Semicircle, definition of, 14. 
Servicertrain of a quartermaster, 90. 
Sewers, 80-82. 
circular, 81. 
circular, areas of surface of discharge 

of, 82. 
egg, 81. 

egg-shaped, dimensions, areas and 
volume of work per lineal foot of, 
81. 
oval, 81. 
Shades and signs, glass grinding for, 281. 
Shafts, 84. 
Shaft, square, size of a, to resist torsion, 

132, 133. 
Sheathing, Baron Wetterstedt's patent, 
255. 
metal, 165. 
Sheet-iron and utensils, enamelling 
masses for, 381. 
-metal work, explanation of diagrams 

for, 166-173. 
-steel, to blue small articles of, 383. 
Shells, to silver, 261, 262. 

varnish for, 350. 
Shingles, number of, allowed to a square, 

76. 
Shoe, harness and boot edge, colors for, 

306. 
Shoemaker's heel ball, 307. 
Shoes and boots, sizing for, in treeing 

out. 306, 307. 
Shot metal, 253. 
Shrinkage of castings, 120, 121. 
Sideraphtite, 366. 
Siemens' unit of resistance and the legal 

ohm, definition of, 242. 
Signs and shades, glass grinding for, 281. 



Signs, arithmetical, definition of, 33, 34. 
Silica, 91. 
Silicon brass, 363. 

telegraph wire A, 365. 
telephone wire A, 363. 
Silk, old, to renew, 316. 
Silver and aluminium, alloys of, 359. 
and gold, polishing powder for, 278. 
and gold, refining of, 274, 275. 
and gold, to enamel, 342, 343. 
and gold, to separate from lace, 279. 
and gold with copper, alloys of, 

365. 
bright, gold tinge on, 327. 
Chinese, 165, 254. 
coin and plate, alloys for, 250. 
colored metal, 248. 
electro-plating with, 277. 
English standard for, 251. 
goods, pickle for frosting and whiten- 
ing, 326, 327. 
hard soldering of, 339. 
Harmstadt's true imitation of, 251. 
imitation of, 248, 251, 252, 255. 
leaf, spurious, 253. 
new French patent alloy for, 251. 
plating, 276. 
plating, cold, 389, 390. 
plating fluid, 278, 279. 
plating powder, to make and apply, 

342. 
plating solution, to make and apply, 

342. 
polishing balls for, 412. 
polishing (Putz) pomade for, 412. 
polishing powders for, 411 , 412. 
refining by electrolysis, 421. 
soap, English rose color, 412. 
solders, 249, 250, 442. 
solution for electroplating, to make, 

340. 
solution, frozen, to restore, 330. 
tarnished in soldering, to cleanse, 

339. 
to refine, 338. 

to separate from copper, 259. 
to write in, 324. 
work, dead, to restore the lustre of, 

416. 
Silvering by heat, 258, 259. 
cold, on metals, 278. 
iron, 390. 
ivory, 287. 
looking-glasses, 283. 
mixture for, 259. 
of clock faces, 271. 
powder for, 269, 390. 
shells, 261, 262. 
without a battery, 390. 
Silversmith's stripping liquid, 271. 
Silverware, to cleanse, 415. 

to wash, 343. 
Size, currier's, 311. 
Skins and fur, fifty dollar receipt for 

tanning of, 310, 311. 
Skirting, 311. 
Slaters' work, measurement of, 76, 77. 



INDEX. 



471 



Slates, from Rutland Co., Vt., quarries, 
77. 

imported, 77. 
Slide rule, utility of the, 48-52. 

valves, 58-60. 

valve, to compute the stroke of a, 60. 
Slipped coat, 64. 
Small arms, lacquer for, 348. 
Smalt, 296. 

Smoke-pipe, encasing a, 169, 170. 
Snow and ice, 202, 203. 

melted, water from, 90. 
Soap, silver, 412. 
Soaps, polishing, 410, 411. 
Soda, boiling points of solutions of, 188. 
Soft soldering articles, 339. 
Soft solders, table of, 442. 
Solder, black, 249. 

cold, 442, 443. 

for copper, 249. 

pewterer's, 259. 

soft, 368. 

soft, for cast Britannia ware, 248. 

soft, gold paint to conceal, 444. 

soft, to color, 444. 

tinman's, 259. 

white, for raised Britannia ware, 247. 

yellow, for brass or copper, 248. 
Soldering aluminium bronze, 360. 

and solders, 441-444. 

cast-iron, 443. 

fluid, 89, 90, 267. 

fluid, jeweller's, 259. 

fluxes for, 90. 

to cleanse gold, tarnished in, 339. 

to cleanse silver, tarnished in, 339. 

with dry lead chloride, 443. 
Solders and soldering, 441-444. 

composition of, 441, 442. 

table of, 89. 

various, 249, 250. 
Solidities and surfaces of the regular 
bodies, epitome of mensuration of, 
46. 
Solidity and capacity, mensuration of, 

52-55. 
Solids, expansion or dilatation of, 118. 

linear expansion of, by heat, 191-193. 
Soluble glass, 284. 
Sound, velocity of, 91. 
Spanish tutania, 248. 
Specific gravity and weight, 175-187. 

gravity, rules for finding the, of 
various bodies, 175, 176. 
Speculum metal, 165, 259. 
Speeds and pressures, multipliers for 

various, 203. 
Sphere, epitome of mensuration of, 44, 

45. 
Spelter, 442. 
Spikes, adhesion of, 128, 129. 

force necessary to extract, 129. 

hook-headed, 128. 

railroad, weight of, 128, 129. 

sizes and number per keg of, 128. 
Spontaneous combustion, 220, 221. 
Spotted marble for books, etc., 313. 



Springs of watches, to temper, 327, 328. 

to temper, 266. 
Square and cube roots of numbers, 49. 

epitome of mensuration of, 45, 46. 

formation of a regular octagon, from 
a, 36. 

to inscribe a, within a circle. 35. 
Squares, mensuration of surface of, 50, 51. 
Staffs, cylinders or pinions to temper 

without springing them, 335. 
Stained glass pigments, 282, 283. 
Stain for oak, 371. 

red, for copper articles, 383. 
Staining bone and ivory brown, 369. 
Stains for alabaster, marble or stone, 315. 

for wood and leather, 308. 

to improve the color, 287. 

to remove, 352. 

various, for wood, 299-302. 
Staircases, measurement of, 75. 
Statuary bronze, 254. 
Steam acting expansively, 55. 

and air, mixture of, 55. 

boilers, cement for, 346. 

boilers, management of, 206, 207. 

boilers, soft cement for, 267. 

effect of expansion with equal 
volumes of, 57. 

elastic force of, 188, 189. 

engine indicator, the, 210-218. 

engines, power of, 52 

facts relating to, 197, 198. 

flow of, from a given orifice, 200. 

initial pressure of, and gain in fuel, 
when acting expansively, 57, 58. 

pipe for steam heating, bronzing of, 
378 ; m 

pipe joints, cement for, 262. 

pipes, cement for, 346. 

pipes, cheap jacketing for, 450. 

pipes, soft cement for, 267. 

sensible heat of, 198. 

table of flow of, through pipes, 199, 
200. 

to compute mean pressure of, by 
hyperbolic logarithms, 55. 
Steel, Adam Schaefer's fluid for harden- 
ing, 419. 

and iron, brush coppering for, 384. 

and iron, nickeling polished articles 
of, 388, 389. 

and iron, protection of by electro- 
lysis, 379, 380. 

and iron, varnish for articles of, 350. 

and weld cast-steel, to restore burnt, 
324. 

burnt, new process to restore, 330. 

burnt, to restore, 264. 

cast, composition for welding, 89, 
263. 

cast, to harden and temper, 325. 

effect of heating on tensile strength 
of, 98. 

electricity for tempering, 418. 

etching liquid for, 419. 

Hadfield's manganese, 362. 

hard soldering of, 339. 



472 



INDEX. 



Steel, heating, 418, 419. 

iron, or iron wire, to copper the sur- 
face of, 268. 
lead, brass and copper, weight of a 

foot of, 144. 
manganese, 362. 
new way of annealing, 41 7. 
or iron, detection of, 416. 
or iron, method of ascertaining the 

quality of, 416, 417. 
or iron, to remove rust from, 330. 
or iron, to soften, 262. 
or iron, transparent blue for, 267. 
poor, to improve, 264. 
sheet, to blue small articles of, 383. 
to draw the temper from a part of a 

small article of, 335. 
to draw the temper from delicate 

pieces of, without springing them, 

335. 
to drill into hard, 328. 
to gild, 261. 

to melt as easily as lead, 264. 
to remove bluing from, 336. 
to toughen, 264. 

two ways of annealing, 417, 418. 
weight of a foot of, 143. 
wire, tensile strength of, 435. 
Stephenson, Fairbairn, Cubitt, Hughes, 

etc., deductions from experiments 

of, 111, 112. 
Stereotype plates and type, alloy for, 165. 
Stiffness of beams, 120. 

relative, of materials, 100. 
Stirling's mixed or toughened iron, 95. 
Stone and metal, 410-441. 

blocks of, measurement of, 73, 74. 
bricks and cement, tensile strength 

of, 233, 234. 
crushing strength of, 66, 67. 
marble or alabaster, stains for, 315. 
or marble, to extract grease from, 351. 
sawing of by helicoidal wire, 438,439. 
Stones and bricks, crushing strength of, 

238-240. 
building, weight, strength, etc., of, 

235-238. 
crushing strength of, 116. 
linear expansion by heat, 193. 
strength of, 233. 
transverse strength of American, 

101. 
transverse strength of English, 

101. 
volume, weight and specific gravity 

of, 180, 181. 
Stone structures, cement for repairing, 

393. 
Stoneware, gold lustre for, 281. 
Stonework and metal, cleaning, 413. 
Stove polish, liquid, 451. 
Stratena, 396. 
Strength and elasticity, definitions of, 91, 

92. 
and other properties of materials, 

224-240. 
and weight of iron chains, 127. 



Strength, crushing, 117. 

crushing of cements, stone, etc., 66, 

67. 
crushing, of various materials, 116. 
lateral, comparisons of, 98-100. 
of beams, 133-135. 
of ice, 119. 
of materials, 91-138. 
relative, of cast and malleable iron, 

108-113. 
tensile, 91-98. 
tensile, of various cements, mortars 

and masonry, 65, 66. 
transverse, 98-115. 
transverse, comparisons of, 98-100. 
transverse, of concretes, cements, 
mortars, puzzuolana and trass, 64, 
65. 
transverse, of materials, 101. 
Stress, computation of, transmitted to a 

belt or cord, 61, 62. 
Strong glue, 349. 
Stucco or exterior plaster, 62, 63. 
Substances, miscellaneous, tensile 
strength of, 97. 
ordinary, weights and volumes of, 

140. 
radiating or absorbent, and reflecting 

powers of, 190, 191. 
various elements connected with the 

tensile resistance of, 96. 
various, modulus of elasticity and 
weight of, 94. 
Support, dimensions of a, to bear a given 

pressure, 131, 132. 
Surface, mensuration of, 50, 51. 
Surfaces and solidities of the regular 
bodies, epitome of mensuration of, 
46. 
Symbals, alloy for, 254. 



Table of alloys and compositions, 165. 
of change wheels for screw-cutting, 

156. 
of gauge-points for the common slide 

rule, 51. 
of gauge-points for the engineer's 

rule, 51. 
of hyperbolic logarithms, 56, 57. 
of number of gallons discharged per 

minute by a single acting pump, 

204, 205. 
of size and number of lights to the 100 

square feet, 79. 
of solders, 442. 

of solubility of aniline colors, 244. 
of the capacities of casks, 162. 
of the strength, extensibility and 

stiffness of metals and woods, 

225. 
showing the weight or pressure a 

cast-iron beam will sustain, 130, 

131. 
to ascertain the number of bricks re- 
quired for any piece of building, 

72. 



INDEX. 



473 



Table, whereby to compute the diameter 
of a wheel for a given pitch, or the 
pitch for a given diameter, 154. 
Tables and rules for artificers, 71-80. 

for mechanical purposes and rare 

and valuable receipts, 247-353. 
of frigorific mixtures, 194-196. 
of powers for the diameters and 
lengths of columns, 136. 
Tanning and buffing of deerskins, 308, 
309. 
Canadian process of, 310. 
cheap, without bark or mineral 

astringents, 310. 
fur and other skins, fifty dollar re- 
ceipt for, 310, 311. 
of calf, kip and harness leather in 

thirty days, 309. 
raw hide, 309. 
Tarnish, to remove from electro-plated 

ware, 327. 
Teeth, depth of, in gears, 344. 

measuring a gear to find the number 

of, 344. 
of cast-iron wheels, strength of, 157. 
to compute the number of, in a 

wheel, 150. 
to find the size of, necessary to trans- 
mit a given horse-power, 157, 158. 
to find the size of, to carry a given 
load, 158. 
Telescopes, reflecting, mirrors of, 254. 
Telescopic mirrors, alloy for, 165. 
Temper, 165. 

Temperatures, high, luminosity at, 189. 
to determine the, of porcelain ovens, 
189, 190. 
Tempering, 262. 

and hardening cast-steel, 325. 

brass, or drawing its temper, 334. 

case springs, 334, 335. 

clicks, ratchets, etc., 335. 

colors, 262. 

drills, 334. 

gravers, 334. 

liquids, 265. 

magnets, 421. 

razors, cutlery, saws, etc., 270, 271. 

staffs, cylinders or pinions, without 

springing them, 333. 
steel, electricity for, 418. 
Tensile resistance of various substances, 
elements connected with the, 96. 
strength, 94-98. 
strength of materials, 96-98. 
Test of aluminium bronze and aluminium 

brass, 357, 358. 
Tests of the viscosity of different oils, 

221. 
Textiles, rendering fire-proof, 401. 
Thermometers, comparison of the scales 

of different, 242. 
Thomson, Prof. Elihu, process of electric 

welding invented by, 425-427. 
Tides, 90. 

Tie-rods, wrought-iron, tensile strength 
of, 98. 
32 



Tiers argent, 359. 

Timber, comparative weight of, in 
green and seasoned state, 121. 

crushing resistance of, 229. 

selection of, 76. 

solid contents of equal-sided, 147. 

transverse and tensile strength of, 
230, 231. 

treatment of, 228, 229. 
Tin and aluminium, alloy of, 359. 

antimony and lead, alloys of, 366, 
367. 

bronzing of, 378. 

cans, size of sheet for, 269. 

foil, paste for fastening paper upon, 
398. 

gold lacquer for, 268. 

Japan flow for, 267. 

lead alloys, nickelling of, 388. 

mucilage for attaching lables to, 397, 
398. 

plate, crystallized, 268, 269. 

plate, pale lacquer for, 257. 

plates, size, length, breadth and 
weight of, 26. 

quantity and quality of, required for 
oil canisters, 27. 

roofs, approved method of painting, 
409, 410. 

shaved or grained, 258. 

to crystallize, 269. 
Tinman's solder, 259. 
Tinning, 259. 

acid, for brass or zinc, 256. 

by simple immersion, 385. 

flux, improved, 269. 

Kustitien's metal for, 260. 

new process of, 259. 

of copper without heating, 384. 
Tinware, to mend, 269. 
Tissues, to make brilliant, 450. 
Tombac, 248, 255, 367. 
Tombstones, perpetual ink for, 315, 348. 
Tools, hints for preserving, 439-441. 

varnish for, 297. 
Torsion, elasticity of, 132. 
Tortoise shell, horn in imitation of, 313. 
Totten, Gen., experiments of, 65. 

General, notes by, 70. 
Toys, metal for, 366. 

varnishes for, 407. 
Transfer varnish, 350. 
Transverse strength, 98-115. 

strength of cast-iron bars and oak 
beams, 102. 

strength of cast-iron girders and 
beams, 115. 

strength of materials, 101. 

strength of solid and hollow cylinders 
of various materials, 103. 
Trapper's and angler's secret for game 

and fish, 316. 
Trass, transverse strength of, 64, 65. 
Tree marble, 312, 313. 
Treussart, General, experiments of, 67. 
Triangle, equilateral, to inscribe within a 
given circle, a, 34. 



474 



INDEX 



Triangles, epitome of mensuration of, 

46, 47. 
Trunk frames, mass for, 391. 
Tubes, cylindrical, crushing strength of, 

118. 
Tube, strength of a, 123. 
Tunnels, 119. 
cost of, 83. 
railway, 84. 
Turkish mortar or Khorassar, 63. 

plaster, or hydraulic cement, 62. 
Turner's work, polish for, 297. 
Turnip shaped body, to get the contents 

of a, 241. 
Turpentine, to prevent exudations of, 

from pine wood, 377, 378. 
Tutania, 366. 

Spanish, 248, 
Tutenag, 255. 
Two-coat work, 63. 

Type and stereotype plates, alloy for, 
165. 
metal, 254, 366. 
rubber, manufacture of, 392. 

Utensils and sheet-iron, enamelling 
masses for, 381. 

Valves, locomotive, to compute the lap 

and lead of, 60. 
Vapors and gases, weight and specific 

gravity of, 187. 
Varnish and polish for gun stocks, 270. 

black coach, 297. 

black, for coaches, 298. 

black, for the edge, 307. 

black, for iron work, 266. 

body, 297. 

bookbinder's, 297, 312. 

cabinet-maker's, 297. 

carriage, 297. 

changing, 298. 

copal, 298. 

copal, for labels, 407. 

finishing with one coat of, 302. 

for iron, 264. 

for smooth moulding patterns, 264. 

for plaster casts, 298. 

for tools, 297. 

for violins, 299. 

how to keep, 408. 

japanner's copal, 297, 298. 

mordant, 298. 

pale amber, 297. 

patent, for wood or canvas, 298. 

transparent, for metals, 407. 

transparent, for ploughs, 298. 

transparent, for wood, 298. 
Varnishes, 296, 349, 350. 

for harness, 307. 

for toys, 407. 

lacquers, paints, etc., 403-410. 
Vegetable substances, weight and specific 

gravity of, 186. 
Veneering, 374-376. 

strong glue for, 287. 
Veneers, dyes for, 286, 287. 



Verde antique marble, 408. 
Vernier scale, 121. 

Vessel, flaring, to describe a pattern of a, 
15, 16. 
flaring, to strike the side of a, 18. 
square, to find the contents in gallons 
of any, 24. 
Vessels, bevel covers for, to describe, 12, 
19. 
cylindrical, contents of in gallons, 

25. 
earthen, to perforate, 403. 
Vienna fire-extinguishing agent, 399. 
Vinegar bronze for brass, 256. 
Violins, varnish for, 299. 
Voisin, experiments of, 65. 
Volumes and weights of various sub- 
stances in ordinary use, 140. 

Wainscoting and furniture, new oak, to 
give an antique appearance to, 371. 
measurement of, 75. 
Walls, green paint for, 289, 290. 

measurement of, 73, 74. 
Wash, best, for barns and houses, 288. 
Watch cleaning, 330, 331. 
hands, to make red, 328. 
jewels, old, how to remove, 415. 
movements, nickel, to renovate, 415. 
movements, to frost, 342. 
or clock wheels, to put teeth in, with- 
out dovetailing or soldering, 328. 
pinion sockets, alloy for, 252. 
plates, to frost, 415. 
Watches, anchor escapement, to lengthen 
levers of, without hammering or 
soldering, 326. 
to put in beat, 333. 
to temper springs of, 327, 328. 
Watchmaker's brass, 260. 
drills, 271, 272. 

oil, which never corrodes or thickens, 
352 
Water, 159, 160, 201, 202. 
casks, cement for, 347. 
color drawings, varnish for, 349. 
lime at fifty cents per barrel, 295. 
polishing, 411. 

power required for raising, 87. 
power, to compute, 87. 
pressure of, 202. 
projection of, 86, 87. 
to find the height necessary for the 

discharge of, 159. 
to find the quantity of, that will run 

through any orifice, 160. 
to find the size of hole, necessary for 

the discharge of, 159. 
velocity of, issuing from an orifice, 

159, 160. 
weight of, 27. 
Water-proofing for clothing, 316. 

-proofing for porous cloth, 317. 
Water-proof packing paper, preparation 
of, 447, 448. 
-proof paper, 448. 
-proof paper, lacquer for, 348. 



INDEX. 



475 



Water-proof polish, 302. 

varnish, 349. 
Watin, gold varnish of, 298. 
Waves, 88. 

Waxing hard-wood floors, 374. 
Weight, 145. 

and modulus of elasticity of various 

substances, 94. 
and specific gravity, 175-187. 
and strength of iron chains, 127. 
of nails, 129, 130. 
of railroad spikes, 128, 129. 
to compute power necessary to raise 
a, with a lever, 240, 241. 
Weights and measures, metric system of, 
114. 
and volumes of various substances in 
ordinary use, 140. 
Weld cast-steel and steel, to restore 

burnt, 324. 
Welding cast-steel, composition for, 263. 
composition for, cast-steel, 89. 
electric, 425-430. 
fluxes for, 90. 

improved method of, 424, 425. 
Well digging, 73. 

Wells and cisterns, measurement of, 73. 
cylindrical, rule for measuring, 244. 
Wetterstedt's, Baron, patent sheathing, 

255 
Wheel gearing, 148-157. 

to compute the circumference of a, 

151. 
to compute the diameter of a, 150. 
to compute the diameter of a, for 

pitch and teeth, 153. 
to compute the number of teeth in a, 

150. 
to compute the pitch of a, 149. 
to compute the pitch of a, for diameter 

and teeth, 153. 
to compute the proportional radius 

of a, 150. 
to compute the revolutions of a, 151. 
to compute the teeth of a, for a given 

diameter and pitch of a, 155. 
to compute the true or chordial 

pitch of a, 149,150. 
to find the horse-power, that any 
will transmit, 158. 
Wheels and gudgeons, 157, 158. 

cast-iron, strength of the teeth of, 

157. 
change, in screw-cutting lathes, 155- 

157. 

definition of various kinds of, 148, 149. 

table whereby to compute the 

diameter of, for the pitch, or the 

pitch for the diameter, 154. 

to compute the velocities of, in a 

train, to one another, 152, 153. 
to determine the proportion of, for 

screw-cutting by a lathe, 155-157. 
train of, to compute the number of 
teeth required in a, 151. 
White lead, substitute for, 289. 
metal, alloys for, 165. 



White metal for table bells, 253. 

metal, hard, 248. 
Whitewash, 290, 352. 

for indoor work, 410. 
to harden, 290. 
water-proof, 410. 
Wick, incombustible, 451. 
Windmill, axle of shaft of, with horizon, 

119. 
to compute the angles of the sails of 

a, 119. 
Windmills, 119. 
Window, frames, cement for filling out 

holes, etc., in, 395. 
glass, 319, 320. 
glass, paint for, 351. 
shutters, measurement of, 75. 
Wind pressure, 242, 243. 
Wire and hemp ropes, 91. 
brass for, 254. 

drawing mill, illustrated and de- 
scribed, 431, 432. 
gauges, comparative table of, 436, 

437. 
iron, to copper the surface of, 268. 
how to fish, 438. 
manufacture of, 430-437. 
phosphor-bronze, copper, brass, 

steel and iron, tensile strength of, 

435. 
roll, construction of oval groove of, 

illustrated, 430, 431. 
roll, series of grooves of, illustrated, 

430. 
rope, helicoidal, sawing stone by, 

438, 439. 
rope, iron, manufactured by John A. 

Roebling Sons Co., table of, 125. 
rope, notes on the use of, 125-127. 
rope, working load for, 241. 
ropes, tensile strength of, 98. 
silicon telegraph, 365. 
silicon telephone, 365. 
Wires, metallic, tenacity of at various 

temperatures, 434. 
Wood and leather, stains for, 308. 

bone, ivory, mother-of-pearl, 369- 

378. 
bronzing or gilding of, 305. 
carving, imitation of, 373, 374. 
charcoal, weight and specific gravity 

of, 184, 185. 
darkening the natural hue of, 371. 
dark green upon, 372. 
ebony color upon, 371. 
exposed to the influence of acids and 

high tension of steam, to protect, 

372, 373. 
filling composition, improved, 343. 
gilding on, 306. 
gray-green color upon, 372. 
impregnation of, 370, 371. 
ivory gloss on, 372. 
moulding, cornices and frames, gild- 
ing of, 376, 377. 
or canvas, patent varnish for, 298. 
or leather, jet or polish for, 302. 



476 



INDEX. 



Wood, or paper, crystalline coating upon, 
372. 

to color black, 372. 

to gild letters on, 285, 286. 

to give some of the special character- 
istics of metal to, 373. 

to petrify, 266. 

to polish, 352, 353. 

to prevent warping of, 371. 

to render indestructible, 295. 

transparent varnish for, 298. 

various stains for, 299-302. 

weight of, 228. 
Wooden carving, to remove paint from a, 
without damaging the wood, 378. 

casks and cisterns, cement for, 394, 
395. 

posts, to preserve, 371. 
Wood's alloy, 368. 
Woods, American, properties of, 228. 

crushing strength of, 116. 

dark colored, polish for, 302. 

hardness of, 228. 

increase in strength of, by seasoning, 
101. 

table of the strength, extensibility 
and stiffness of, 225. 

tensile strength of, 97. 

transverse strength of, 101. 



Woods, weight and specific gravity of, 

182-184. 
weight and volume of, 140. 
Wood-working machinery, velocities of, 

85. 
Wood-work, prevention of worms in, 373. 

to preserve, 352. 
Woolens or furs, prevention of moths in, 

316, 317. 
Wrinkles for engineers, 197-210. 

Zapon, a new lacquer, 404, 405. 
Zinc and brass signs, cement for filling, 
395. 

cement from chloride of, 394. 

fret work, bronzing of, 378. 

labels, for writing upon, 351. 

melting, 420. 

ornaments, cement for repairing, 395. 

plates, coppering of, 383, 384. 

refining and reducing electrically, 
420, 421. 

solution of copper on, 272. 

tinning acid for, 256. 

to coat with nickel, 389. 

to prepare for painting, 410. 

to reduce oxide of, 329, 330. 
Zincing, 324. 

old and new parts, 384, 385. 



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the request of the Council, to the members of the Bradford Technical 
College, and the Society of Dyers and Colorists. By F. II. Bow- 
man, D. Sc, F. R. S. E., F. L. S. Illustrated by 32 engravings. 
8vo. . . . $6.50 

feYRNE. — Hand-Book for the Artisan, Mechanic, and Engi- 
neer: 
Comprising the Grinding and Sharpening of Cutting Tools, Abrasive 
Processes, Lapidary Work, Gem and Glass Engraving, Varnishing 
and Lackerim 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



Polishing, etc. By Oliver Byrne, Illustrated by 185 wood en- 
gravings. 8vo. £5.00 

BYRNE.— Pocket-Book for Railroad and Civil Engineers : 

Containing New, Exact and Concise Methods for Laying out Railroad 
Curves, Switches, Frog Angles and Crossings ; the Staking out of 
work ; Levelling ; the Calculation of Cuttings ; Embankments ; Earth- 
work, etc. By Oliver Byrne. i8mo., full bound, pocket-book 
form $1.75 

BYRNE.— The Practical Metal- Worker's Assistant : 

Comprising Metallurgic Chemistry; the Arts of Working all Metals 
and Alloys; Forging of Iron and Steel ; Hardening and Tempering; 
Melting and Mixing; Casting and Founding ; Works in Sheet Metal; 
the Processes Dependent on the Ductility of the Metals; Soldering; 
and the most Improved Processes and Tools employed by Metal- 
workers. With the Application of the Art of Electro- Metallurgy to 
Manufacturing Processes ; collected from Original Sources, and from 
the works of Holtzapffel, Bergeron, Leupold, Plumier, Napier, 
Scoffern, Clay, Fairbairn and others. By Oliver Byrne. A new, 
revised and improved edition, to which is added an Appendix, con- 
taining The Manufacture of Russian Sheet-Iron. By John Percy, 
M. D., F. R. S. The Manufacture of Malleable Iron Castings, and 
Improvements in Bessemer Steel. By A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and 
Engineer. With over Six Hundred Engravings, Illmstrating every 
Branch of the Subject. 8vo. ....... $7.00 

BYRNE.— The Practical Model Calculator: 

For the Engineer, Mechanic, Manufacturer of Engine Work, Narai 
Architect, Miner and Millwright. By Oliver Byrne. 8vo., nearly 
fcoo pages ......... $4-5* 

CABINET MAKER'S ALBUM OF FURNITURE 1 

Comprising a Collection of Designs for various Styles of Furniture. 
Illustrated by Forty-eight Large and Beautifully Engraved Plates. 
Oblong, 8vo $3.50 

CALLINGHAM.— Sign Writing and Glass Embossing: 

A Complete Practical Illustrated Manual of the Art. By James 
Callingham. i2mo . . $1.50 

CAMPIN. — A Practical Treatise on Mechanical Engineering: 
Comprising Metallurgy, Moulding, Castiag, Forging, Tools, Work- 
shop Machinery, Mechanical Manipulation, Manufacture of Steam* 
Engines, etc. With an Appendix on the Analysis of Iron and Iron 
Ores. By Ffancis Campin, C. E. To which are added, Observations 
on the Construction of Steam Boilers, and Remarks upon Furnaces 
used for Smoke Prevention ; with a Chapter on Explosions. By R. 
Armstrong, C. E., and John Bourne. Rules for Calculating ths 
Change Wheels for Screws on a Turning Lathe, and for a Wheel* 
cutting Machine. By J. La Nicca. Management of Steel, Includ- 
ing Forging, Hardening, Tempering, Annealing, Shrinking an<£ 
Expand >n ; and the Case-hai'dening of Iron. By G. Edf. Svo. 
Illustrated with twenty-nine plates and 100 wood engravings $5.00 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



CAREY.— A Memoir of Henry C. Carey. 

By Dr. Wm. Elder, With a portrait. 8vo., cloth . . 75 

CAREY.— The Works of Henry C. Carey : 

Harmony of Interests : Agricultural, Manufacturing and Commer. 

cial. 8vo. $1.50 

Manual of Social Science. Condensed from Carey's " Principles 
of Social Science." By Kate McKean. i vol. i2mo. . $2.25 
Miscellaneous "Works. With a Portrait, 3 vols. 8vo. $6.od 

Past, Present and Future. 8vo $2.50 

Principles of Social Science. 3 volumes, 8vo. . . $10.00 
The Slave-Trade, Domestic and Foreign; Why it Exists, and 
How it may be Extinguished (1853). 8vo. . . , $2.00 
The Unity of Law : As Exhibited in the Relations of Physical, 
Social, Mental and Moral Science (1872). 8vo. . '. $S-S a 

CLARK. — Tramways, their Construction and Working: 

Embracing a Comprehensive History of the System. With an ex' 
haustive analysis of the various modes of traction, including horse- 
power, steam, heated water and compressed air ; a description of th? 
varieties of Rolling stock, and ample details of cost and working ex- 
penses. By D. Kinnear Clark. Illustrated by over 200 wood 
engravings, and thirteen folding plates. 2 vols. 8vo. . #12.50 

COLBURN.— The Locomotive Engine : 

Including a Description of its Structure, Rules for Estimating its 
Capabilities, and Practical Observations on its Construction and Man- 
agement. By Zerah Colburn. Illustrated. i2mo. . #1.00 

COLLENS.— The Eden of Labor; or, the Christian Ptopia. 
By T. Wharton Collens, author of " Humanics," " The History 
of Charity," etc. i2mo. Paper cover, $1.00; Cloth . #1.25 

COO LEY.— A Complete Practical Treatise on Perfumery : 

Being a Hand-book of Perfumes, Cosmetics and other Toilet Articles. 
With a Comprehensive Collection of Formulae. By Arnold J, 
Cooley. i2mo $1.50 

COOPER.— A Treatise on the use of Belting for the Trans- 
mission of Power. 
With numerous illustrations of approved and actual methods of ar- 
ranging Main Driving and Quarter Twist Belts, and of Belt Fasten- 
ings. Examples and Rules in great number for exhibiting and cal- 
culating the size and driving power of Belts. Plain, Particular and 
Practical Directions for the Treatment, Care and Management of 
Belts. Descriptions of many varieties of Beltings, together with 
chapters on the Transmission of Power by Ropes; by Iron and 
Wood Frictional Gearing ; on the Strength of Belting Leather ; and 
on the Experimental Investigations of Morin, Briggs, and others. Bf 
John H. Cooper, M. E. 8vo #3-50 

CRAIK.— The Practical American Millwright and Miller. 

By David Craik, Millwright. Illustrated by numerous wood en- 
gravings and two folding plates. 8vo. ...» $5* OG 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



CREW. — A Practical Treatise on Petroleum : 

Comprising its Origin, Geology, Geographical Distribution, History, 
Chemistry, Mining, Technology, Uses and Transportation. Together 
with a Description of Gas Wells, the Application of Gas as Fuel, etc. 
By Benjamin J. Crew. With an Appendix on the Product and 
Exhaustion of the Oil Regions, and the Geology of Natural Gas in 
Pennsylvania and New York. By Charles A. Ashburner, M. S„, 
Geologist in Charge Pennsylvania Survey, Philadelphia. Illustrated 
by 70 engravings. 8vo. 508 pages ... . . $^.00 

CROSS.— The Cotton Yarn Spinner: 

Showing how the Preparation should be arranged for Different 
Counts of Yarns by a System more uniform than has hitherto been 
practiced; by having a Standard Schedule from which we make all 
our Changes. By Richard Cross. 122 pp. i2mo. . 75 

CRISTIANL— A Technical Treatise on Soap and Candles: 
With a Glance at the Industry of Fats and Oils. By R. S. Cris- 
TIANI, Chemist. Author of " Perfumery and Kindred Arts." Illus- 
trated by 176 engravings. 581 pages, 8vo. . . . $7-50 

CRISTIANL— Perfumery and Kindred Arts: 
A Comprehensive Treatise on Perfumery, containing a History of 
Perfumes from the remotest ages to the present time. A complete 
detailed description of the various Materials and Apparatus used in 
the Perfumer's Art, with thorough Practical Instruction and careful 
Formulae, and advice for the fabrication of all known preparations of 
the day, including Essences, Tinctures, Extracts, Spirits, Waters, 
Vinegars, Pomades, Powders, Paints, Oils, Emulsions, Cosmetics, 
Infusions, Pastilles, Tooth Powders and Washes, Cachous, Hair Dyes, 
Sachets, Essential Oils, Flavoring Extracts, etc. ; and full details for 
making and manipulating Fancy Toilet Soaps, Shaving Creams, etc., 
by new and improved methods. W T ith an Appendix giving hints and 
advice for making and fermenting Domestic Wines, Cordials, Liquors, 
Candies, Jellies, Syrups, Colors, etc., and for Perfuming and Flavor- 
ing Segars, Snuff and Tobacco, and Miscellaneous Receipts fol 
varkms useful Analogous Articles. By R. S. CRISTIANI, Con- 
sulting Chemist and Perfumer, Philadelphia. 8vo. . . $$.oa 

DAVIDSON.— A Practical Manual of House Painting, Grain- 
ing, Marbling, and Sign- Writing : 
Containing full information on the processes of House Painting in 
Oil and Distemper, the Formation of Letters and Practice of Sign- 
Writing, the Principles of Decorative Art, a Course of Elementary 
Drawing for House Painters, Writers, etc., and a Collection of Useful 
Receipts. With nine colored illustrations of Woods and Marbles, 
aad numerous wood engravings. By Ellis A. Davidson. i2mo. 

$3.00 

' AVIES. — A Treatise on Earthy and Other Minerals and 
Mining : 
By D. C. Davies, F. G. S., Mining Engineer, etc. Illustrated by 
76 Engravings. i2mo $5.00 



ro HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 

DAVIES.— A Treatise on Metalliferous Minerals and Mining: 
By D. C. Davies, F. G. S., Mining Engineer, Examiner of Mines, 
Quarries and Collieries. Illustrated by 148 engravings of Geological 
Formations, Mining Operations and Machinery, drawn from the 
practice »f all parts of the world. 2d Edition, i2mo., 450 pages $$.<M 

OAVIES.— A Treatise on Slate and Slate Quarrying: 
Scientific, Practical and Commercial. By D. C. Davies, F. G. S., s 
Mining Engineer, etc. With numerous illustrations and folding 

. plates. 12*0 "■"._. $2.03 

DAVIS. — A Treatise on Steam-Boiler Incrustation and Meth- 
ods for Preventing Corrosion and the Formation of Scale : 
By Charles T. Davis. Illustrated by 65 engravings. 8vo. 5 1.50 
P AVIS.— -The Manufacture of Paper: 

Being a Description of the various Processes for the Fabrication, 
Coloring and Finishing of every kind of Paper, Including the Dif- 
ferent Raw Materials and the Methods for Determining their Values, 
the Tools, Machines and Practical Details connected with an intelli- 
gent and a profitable prosecution of the art, with special reference to 
the best American Practice. To which are added a History of Pa- 
per, complete Lists of Paper-Making Materials, List of American 
Machines, Tools and Processes used in treating the Raw Materials, 
and in Making, Coloring and Finishing Paper. By Charles T. 
Davis. Illustrated by 156 engravings. 608 pages, 8vo. #6.00 

DAVIS.— The Manufacture of Leather: 
Being a description of all of the Processes for the Tanning, Tawing, 
Currying, Finishing and Dyeing of every kind of Leather j including 
the various Raw Materials and the Methods for Determining their 
Values; the Tools, Machines, and all Details of Importance con- 
nected with an Intelligent and Profitable Prosecution of the Art, with 
Special Reference to the Best American Practice. To which are 
added Complete Lists of all American Patents for Materials, Pro- 
cesses, Tools, and Machines for Tanning, Currying, etc. By Charles 
Thomas Davis. Illustrated by 302 engravings and 12 Samples of 
Dyed Leathers. One vol., 8vo., 824 pages . . . $io.oa 
DAWIDOWSKY— BRANNT.— A Practical Treatise on the 
Raw Materials and Fabrication of Glue, Gelatine, Gelatine 
Veneers and Foils, Isinglass, Cements, Pastes, Mucilages, 
etc.: 
Based upon Actual Experience. By F. Dawidowsky, Technical 
Chemist. Translated from the German, with extensive additions, 
including a description of the most Recent American Processes, by 
William T. Brannt, Graduate of the Royal Agricultural College 
of Eldena, Prussia. 35 Engravings. i2mo. . . . #2.50 

OE GRAFF.— The Geometrical Stair-Builders' Guide : 

Being a Plain Practical System of Hand-Railing, embracing all its 
necessary Details, and Geometrically Illustrated by twenty-two Steel 
Engravings ; together with the use of the most approved principles 
&t Practical Geometry. By Simon De Graff, Architect. 4to. 

$2.50 



HENRY CAREY BA"iRi> & CC.3 CATALOGUE. 



DE KONINCK— DIETZ.— A Practical Manual of Chemical 
Analysis and Assaying : 
As applied to the Manufacture of Iron from its Ores, and to Cast Iron, 
Wrought Iron, and Steel, as found in Commerce. By L. L. De 
Koninck, Dr. Sc, and E. Dietz, Engineer. Edited with Notes, by 
Robert Mallet, F. R. S., F. S. G., M. I. C. E., etc. American 
Edition, Edited with Notes and an Appendix on Iron Ores, by A. A. 
Fesquet, Chemist and Engineer. i2mo. . . . $2.50 

DUNCAN.— Practical Surveyor's Guide: 

Containing the necessary information to make any person of com- 
mon capacity, a finished land surveyor without the aid of a teacher 
By Andrew Duncan. Illustrated. i2mo. . . . $1 25 

DUPLAIS.— A Treatise on the Manufacture and Distillation 
of Alcoholic Liquors : 
Comprising Accurate and Complete Details in Regard to Alcohol 
from Wine, Molasses, Beets, Grain, Rice, Potatoes, Sorghum, Aspho- 
del, Fruits, etc. ; with the Distillation and Rectification of Brandy, 
Whiskey, Rum, Gin, Swiss Absinthe, etc., the Preparation of Aro- 
matic Waters, Volatile Oils or Essences, Sugars, Syrups, Aromatic 
Tinctures, Liqueurs, Cordial Wines, Effervescing Wines, etc., the 
Ageing of Brandy and the improvement of Spirits, with Copious 
Directions and Tables for Testing and Reducing Spirituous Liquors, 
etc., etc. Translated and Edited from the French of MM. Duplais, 
Aine et Jeune. By M. McKennie, M. D. To which are added the 
United States Internal Revenue Regulations for the Assessment and 
Collection of Taxes on Distilled Spirits. Illustrated by fourteen 
folding plates and several wood engravings. 743 pp. 8vo. $10 00 

BU88ACJCE.— Practical Treatise on the Fabrication of Matches, 
Gun Cotton, and Fulminating Powder. 
By Professor H. Dussauce. i2mo. . . . . ^3 00 

OYER AND COLOR-MAKER'S COMPANION: 

Containing upwards of two hundred Receipts for making Colors, on 
the most approved principles, for all the various styles and fabrics now 
in existence; with the Scouring Process, and plain Directions for 
Preparing, Washing-off, and Finishing the Goods. i2mo. |i 25 

EDWARDS. — A Catechism of the Marine Steam-Engine, 

For the use of Engineers, Firemen, and Mechanics. A Practical 
Work for Practical Men. By Emory Edwards, Mechanical Engi- 
neer. Illustrated by sixty-three Engravings, including examples of 
the most modern Engines. Third edition, thoroughly revised, with 
much additional matter. 12 mo. 414 pages . . . |2 00 

EDWARDS. — Modern American Locomotive Engines, 

Their Design, Construction and Management. By Emory Edwards, 
Illustrated i2mo $2.00 

EDWARDS.— The American Steam Engineer: 

Theoretical and Practical, with examples of the latest and most ap- 
proved American practice in the design and construction of Steam 
Engines and Boilers. For the use of engineers, machinists, boiler- 
v»^kers, and engineering students. By Emory Edwards. Fully 
feilustrated, 419 pages. i2mo, .... $2.50 



tat HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 

EDWARDS. — Modern American Marine Engines, Boilers, an4 
Screw Propellers, 

Their Design and Construction. Showing the Present Practice of 
the most Eminent Engineers and Marine Engine Builders in the 
United States. Illustrated by 30 large and elaborate plates. 4to. $5-OQ 
EDWARDS.— The Practical Steam Engineer's Guide 

In the Design, Construction, and Management of American Stationary, 
Portable, and Steam Fire- Engines, Steam Pumps, Boilers, Injectors, 
Governors, Indicators, Pistons and Rings, Safety Valves and Steam 
Gauges. For the use of Engineers, Firemen, and Steam Users. By 
Emory Edwards. Illustrated by 119 engravings. 420 pages. 
i2mo. .......... $2 50 

EISSLER.— The Metallurgy of Gold : 

A Practical Treatise on the Metallurgical Treatment of Gold-Bear- 
ing Ores, including the Processes of Concentration and Chlorination, 
and the Assaying, Melting, and Refining of Gold. By M. Eissler. 
With 132 Illustrations. i2mo $3S° 

EISSLER.— The Metallurgy of Silver : 

A Practical Treatise on the Amalgamation, Roasting, and Lixiviation 
of Silver Ores, including the Assaying, Melting, and Refining of 
Silver Bullion. By M. Eissler. 124 Illustrations. 336 pp. 
l2mo $4-25 

ELDER. — Conversations on the Principal Subjects of Political 
Economy. 
By Dr. William Elder. 8vo $2.50 

ELDER.— Questions of the Day, 

Economic and Social. By Dr. William Elder. 8vo. . #3.00 

BRNI. — Mineralogy Simplified. 

Easy Methods of Determining and Classifying Minerals, including 
Ores, by means of the Blowpipe, and by Humid Chemical Analysis, 
based on Professor von Kobell's Tables for the Determination of 
Minerals, with an Introduction to Modern Chemistry. By Henry 
Erni, A.M., M.D., Professor of Chemistry. Second Edition, rewritten, 
enlarged and improved. i2mo. .... $3 oc 

FAIRBAIRN.— The Principles of Mechanism and Machinery 
of Transmission • 
Comprising the Principles of Mechanism, W 7 heels, and Pullevs, 
Strength and Proportions of Shafts, Coupling of Shafts, and Engag- 
ing and Disengaging Gear. By Sir William Fairbairn, Bait. 
C. E. Beautifully illustrated by over 1 50 wood-cuts. In one 
volume. i2mo # 2 -5° 

FLEMING.— Narrow Gauge Railways in America. 
A Sketch of their Rise, Progress, and Success. Valuable Statistics 
as to Grades, Curves, Weight of Rail, Locomotives, Cars, etc. By 
v Howard Fleming. Illustrated, 8vo $1 00 

FORSYTH.— Book of Designs for Headstones, Mural, and 
other Monuments : 
Containing 78 Designs. By James Forsyth. With an Introduction 
by Charles Boutell, M. A. 4 to., cloth . . - $S o° 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 13 



FRANKEL- HUTTER.— A Practical Treatise on the Manu- 
facture of Starch, Glucose, Starch-Sugar, and Dextrine: 
Based on the German of Ladislaus Von Wagner, Professor in the 
Royal Technical High School, Buda-Pest, Hungary, and other 
authorities. By Julius Frankel, Graduate of the Polytechnic 
School of Hanover. Edited by Robert Hutter, Chemist, Practical 
Manufacturer of Starch-Sugar. Illustrated by 58 engravings, cover- 
ing every branch of the subject, including examples of the most 
Recent and Best American Machinery. 8vo., 344 pp. . $3.50 

GARDNER. — The Painter's Encyclopaedia : 

Containing Definitions of all Important Words in the Art of Plain 
and Artistic Painting, with Details of Practice in Coach, Carriage, 
Railway Car, House, Sign, and Ornamental Painting, including 
Graining, Marbling, Staining, Varnishing, Polishing. Lettering, 
Stenciling, Gilding, Bronzing, etc. By Franklin B. Gardner. 
158 Illustrations. l2mo. 427 pp. . . . . . #2.oa 

GARDNER.— Everybody's Paint Book: 

A Complete Guide to the Art of Outdoor and Indoor Painting, De- 
signed for the Special Use of those who wish to do their own work, 
and consisting of Practical Lessons in Plain Painting, Varnishing, 
Polishing, Staining, Paper Hanging, Kalsomining, etc., as well as 
Directions for Renovating Furniture, and Hints on Artistic Work for 
Home Decoration. 38 Illustrations. i2mo., 183 pp. . $1.00 

GEE.— The Goldsmith's Handbook: 

Containing full instructions for the Alloying and Working of Gold, 
including the Art of Alloying, Melting, Reducing, Coloring, Col- 
lecting, and Refining; the Processes of Manipulation, Recovery of 
Waste ; Chemical and Physical Properties of Gold ; with a New 
System of Mixing its Alloys ; Solders, Enamels, and other Useful 
Rules and Recipes. By George E. Gee. i2mo. . . $1.75 

GEE.— The Silversmith's Handbook : 

Containing full instructions for the Alloying and Working of Silver, 
including the different modes of Refining and Melting the Metal; its 
Solders ; the Preparation of Imitation Alloys ; Methods of Manipula- 
tion ; Prevention of Waste ; Instructions for Improving and Finishing 
the Surface of the Work ; together with other Useful Information and 
Memoranda. By George E. Gee. Illustrated. i2mo. $1-75 

GOTHIC ALBUM FOR CABINET-MAKERS: 

Designs for Gothic Furniture. Twenty-three plates. Oblong $2.00 

GRANT.— A Handbook on the Teeth of Gears : 

Their Curves, Properties, and Practical Construction. By George 
B. Grant. Illustrated. Third Edition, enlarged. 8vo. $1.00 

GREENWOOD.— Steel and Iron: 

Comprising the Practice and Theory of the Several Methods Pur- 
sued in their Manufacture, and of their Treatment in the Rolling- 
Mills, the Forge, and the Foundry. By William Henry Green- 
wood, F. C. S. With 97 Diagrams, 536 pages. i2mo. #2.00 



14 HENRY CAREY BAIRD 8c CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



GREGORY.— Mathematics for Practical Men : 

Adapted to the Pursuits of Surveyors, Architects, Mechanics, and 
Civil Engineers. By Olinthus Gregory. 8vo., plates #3.00 

GRIMSHAW.— Saws : 

The History, Development, Action, Classification, and Comparison 
of Saws of all kinds. With Copious Appendices. Giving the details 
of Manufacture, Filing, Setting, Gumming, etc. Care and Use of 
Saws ; Tables of Gauges ; Capacities of Saw-Mills ; List of Saw- 
Patents, and other valuable information. By Robert Grimshaw. 
Second and greatly enlarged edition, with Supplement, and 354 
Illustrations. Quarto $4.00 

GRISWOLD.— Railroad Engineer's Pocket Companion for the 
Field : 
Comprising Rules for Calculating Deflection Distances and Angles, 
Tangential Distances and Angles, and all Necessary Tables for En. 
gineers; also the Art of Levelling from Preliminary Survey to the 
Construction of Railroads, intended Expressly for the Young En- 
gineer, together with Numerous Valuable Rules and Examples. By 
W. Griswold. i2tno., tucks $ l -7i 

GRUNER. — Studies of Blast Furnace Phenomena: 

By M. L. Gruner, President of the General Council of Mines oi 
France, and lately Professor of Metallurgy at the Ecole des Mines. 
Translated, with the author's sanction, with an appendix, by L. D. 
B. Gordon, F. R. S. E., F. G. S. 8vo. . . . #2.50 

Hand-Book of Useful Tables for the Lumberman, Farmer and 
Mechanic: 
Containing Accurate Tables of Logs Reduced to Inch Board Meas*. 
ure, Plank, Scantling and Timber Measure ; Wages and Rent, by 
Week or Month; Capacity of Granaries, Bins and Cisterns; Land 
Measure, Interest Tables, with Directions for Finding the Interest on 
any sum at 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 per cent., and many other Useful Tables. 
32 mo., boards. 186 pages .25 

HASERICK.— The Secrets of the Art of Dyeing Wool, Cotton, 
and Linen, 
Including Bleaching and Coloring Wool and Cotton Hosiery and 
Random Yarns. A Treatise based on Economy and Practice. By 
E. C. Haserick. Illustrated by 323 Dyed Patterns of the Yarnt 
or Fabrics. 8vo #12.50 

HATS AND FELTING: 

A Practical Treatise on their Manufacture. By a Practical Hatter. 
Illustrated by Drawings of Machinery, etc. 8vo. . . ^ r .25 
>HOFFER. — A Practical Treatise on Caoutchouc and Gutta 
Percha, 
Comprising the Properties of the Raw Materials, and the manner of 
Mixing and Working them ; with the Fabrication of Vulcanized and 
Hard Rubbers, Caoutchouc and Gutta Pescha Compositions, Wai«, 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 15 

*»■ . ■ ■ 

proof Substances, Elastic Titesues, the Utilization of Waste, etc., etc. 
From the German of Raimund Hoffer. By W. T. Brannt. 
Illustrated i2mo #2.50 

HOFMANN. — A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of 
Paper in all its Branches : 
By Carl Hofmann, Late Superintendent of Paper-Mills in Germany 
and the United States; recently Manager of the "Public Ledger" 
Paper-Mills, near Elkton, Maryland. Illustrated by no wood en- 
gravings, and five large Folding Plates. 4to., cloth; about 400 
pages .... #35.00 

HUGHES. — American Miller and Millwright's Assistant: 
By William Carter Hughes. i2mo $1.50 

HULME. — Worked Examination Questions in Plane Geomet- 
rical Drawing : 
For the Use of Candidates for the Royal Military Academy, Wool- 
wich; the Royal Military College, Sandhurst; the Indian Civil En- 
gineering College, Cooper's Hill ; Indian Public Works and Tele- 
graph Departments ; Royal Marine Light Infantry ; the Oxford and 
Cambridge Local Examinations, etc. By F. Edward Hulme, F. L. 
S., F. S. A., Art-Master Marlborough College. Illustrated by 300 
examples. Small quarto #2.50 

JERVIS.— Railroad Property: 

A Treatise on the Construction and Management of Railways; 
designed to afford useful knowledge, in the popular style, to the 
holders of this class of property ; as well as Railway Managers, Offi- 
cers, and Agents. By John B. Jervis, late Civil Engineer of the 
Hudson River Railroad, Croton Aqueduct, etc. i2mo., cloth $2.og 

KEENE.-A Hand-Book of Practical Gauging: 

For the Use of Beginners, to which is added a Chapter on Distilla* 
tion, describing the process in operation at the Custom-House for 
ascertaining the Strength of Wines. By James B. Keene, of H. M. 
Customs. 8vo. ........ $1.25 

KELLEY. — Speeches, Addresses, and Letters on Industrial and 
Financial Questions : 
By Hon. William D. Kelley, M. C. 544 pages, 8vo. . $3.00 

KELLOGG.— A New Monetary System : 

The only means of Securing the respective Rights of Labor and 
Property, and of Protecting the Public from Financial Revulsions. 
By Edward Kellogg. Revised from his work on "Labor and 
other Capital." With numerous additions from his mnnuscript. 
Edited by Mary Kellogg Putnam. Fifth edition. To which w 
added a Biographical Sketch of the Author. One volume, i2mo. 

Paper cover $1.00 

Bound in cloth 1.5a 

KEMLO.— Watch-Repairer's Hand-Book : 
Being a Complete Guide to the Young Beginner, in Taking Apart, 
Putting Together, and Thoroughly Cleaning the English Lever and 
other Foreign Watches, and all American Watches. By F. Kemlo, 
"Practical Watchmaker. With Illustrations. i2mo. • #I-2| 



|6 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



KENTISH.— A Treatise on a Box of Instruments, 

And the Slide Rule ; with the Theory of Trigonometry and Loga. 
rithms, including Practical Geometry, Surveying, Measuring of Tim. 
ber, Cask and Malt Gauging, Heights, and Distances. By ThomaJ 
Kentish. In one volume. i2mo. ... $\ 2* 

KERL- The Assayer's Manual: "^ 
An Abridged Treatise on the Docimastic Examination of Ores, and 
Furnace and other Artificial Products. By Bruno Kerl, Professor 
in the Royal School of Mines. Translated from the German by 
William T. Brannt. Second American edition, edited with Ex- 
tensive Additions by F. Lynwood Garrison, Member of the 
American Institute of Mining Engineers, etc. Illustrated by 87 en- 
gravings. 8vo. . $3.00 

KJCK.— Flour Manufacture. 

A Treatise on Milling Science and Practice. By Frederick Kick, 
Imperial Regierungsrath, Professor of Mechanical Technology in the 
imperial German Polytechnic Institute, Prague. Translated from 
the second enlarged and revised edition with supplement by H. H. 
P. Powles, Assoc. Memb. Institution of Civil Engineers. Illustrated 
with 28 Plates, and 167 Wood-cuts. 367 pages. 8vo. . #10.00 

KINGZETT.— The History, Products, and Processes of the 
Alkali Trade : 
Including the most Recent Improvements. By Charles Thomas 
Kingzett, Consulting Chemist. With 23 illustrations. 8v«. #2.50 

KINSLEY. — Self- Instructor on Lumber Surveying: 

For the Use of Lumber Manufacturers, Surveyors, and Teachers. 
By Charles Kinsley, Practical Surveyor and Teacher of Surveying. 
i2mo 

KIRK.— The Founding of Metals : 

A Practical Treatise on the Melting of Iron, with a Description of th« 
Founding of Alloys ; also, of all the Metals and Mineral Substances 
used in the Art of Founding. Collected from original sources. By 
Edward Kirk, Practical Foundryman and Chemist. Illustrated. 
Third edition. 8vo. $2.50 

LANDRIN— A Treatise on Steel: 

Comprising its Theory, Metallurgy, Properties, Practical Working, 
and Use. By M. H. C. Landrin, Jr., Civil Engineer. Translated 
from the French, with Notes, by A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and En- 
gineer. With an Appendix on the Bessemer and the Martin Pro- 
cesses for Manufacturing Steel, from the Report of Abram S. Hewitt 
United States Commissioner to the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1867.. 
l2mo $3°° 

LARDEN* — A School Course on Heat: 
By W. Larden, M. A. 321 pp. i2mo. .... £2.00 

LARDNER,- The Steam-Engine: 
For the Use of Beginners. By Dr. Lardner. Illustrated. l2mo. 



HENRY CAREV BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 17 

LARKIN — The Practical Brass and Iron Founder's Guide: 
A Concise Treatise on Brass Founding, Moulding, the Metals and 
their Alloys, etc. ; to which are added Recent Improvements in the 
Manufacture of Iron, Steel by the Bessemer Process, etc., etc. By 
James Larkin, late Conductor of the Brass Foundry Department in 
Reany, Neafie & Co.'s Penn Works, Philadelphia. Fifth edition, 
revised, with extensive additions. i2mo. . . . $2.25 

LEROUX.— A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of 
Worsteds and Carded Yarns : 
Comprising Practical Mechanics, with Rules and Calculations applied 
to Spinning; Sorting, Cleaning, and Scouring Wools; the English 
and French Methods of Combing, Drawing, and Spinning Worsteds, 
and Manufacturing Carded Yarns. Translated from the French of 
Charles Leroux, Mechanical Engineer and Superintendent of a 
Spinning-Mill, by Horatio Paine, M. D., and A. A. Fesquet, 
Chemist and Engineer. Illustrated by twelve large Plates. To which 
is added an Appendix, containing Extracts from the Reports of the 
International Jury, and of the Artisans selected by the Committee 
appointed by the Council of the Society of Arts, London, on Woolen 
and Worsted Machinery and Fabiics, as exhibited in the Pans Uni- 
versal Exposition, 1867. 8vo. $5.00 

LEFFEL. — The Construction of Mill-Dams: 
Comprising also the Building of Race and Reservoir Embankments 
and Head-Gates, the Measurement of Streams, Gauging of Water 
Supply, etc. By James Leffel & Co. Illustrated by 58 engravings. 
8vo. $2.50 

LESLIE.— Complete Cookery: 
Directions for Cookery in its Various Branches. By Miss Leslie. 
Sixtieth thoasand. Thoroughly revised, with the addition of New 
Receipts. 12010 $1-50 

LE VAN. — The Steam Engine and the Indicator : 

Their Origin and Progressive Development ; including the Most 
Recent Examples of Steam and Gas Motors, together with the Indi- 
cator, its Principles, its Utility, and its Application. By William 
Barnet Le Van. Illustrated by 205 Engravings, chiefly of Indi- 
cator-Cards. 469 pp. 8vo. ...... 44»oo 

-IEBER.— Assayer's Guide : 
Or, Practical Directions to Assayers, Miners, and Smelters, for the 
Tests and Assays, by Heat and by Wet Processes, for the Ores of all 
the principal Metals, of Gold and Silver Coins and Alloys, and of 
Coal, etc. By Oscar M. Lieber. i2mo. . . . $1.25 

Lockwood's Dictionary of Terms : 
Used in the Practice of Mechanical Engineering, embracing those 
Current in the Drawing Office, Pattern Shop, Foundry, Fitting, Turn- 
ing, Smith's and Boiler Shops, etc., etc., comprising upwards of Sir 
Thousand Definitions. Edited by a Foreman Pattern Maker, author 
of " Pattern Making." 417 pp. l2mo. . . . $3.00 



i8 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 

LUKIN. — Amongst Machines j 

Embracing Descriptions of the various Mechanical Appliances used 
in the Manufacture of Wood, Metal, and other Substances. »2mo. 

1AJKIN.— The Boy Engineers: 

What They Did, and How They Did It. With 30 plates. i8mo. 

#1-75 
LUKIN.— The Young Mechanic 1 

Practical Carpentry. Containing Directions for the Use of all kinds 

©f Tools, and for Construction of Steam-Engines and Mechanical 

Models, including the Art of Turning in Wood and Metal. By John 

Lukin, Author of "The Lathe and Its Uses," etc. Illustrated. 

I2mo '. $1-75 

MAIN and BROWN.— Questions on Subjects Connected with 

the Marine Steam-Engine ; 

And Examination Papers; with Hints for their Solution. By 

Thomas J. Main, Professor of Mathematics, Royal Naval College, 

and Thomas Brown, Chief Engineer, R. N. i2mo., cloth . #1.50 

MAIN and BROWN. — The Indicator and Dynamometer: 

With their Practical Applications to the Steam-Engine. By THOMAS 
J. Main, M. A. F. R., Ass't S. Professor Royal Naval College, 
Portsmouth, and Thomas Brown, Assoc. Inst. C. E., Chief Engineer 
R. N., attached to the R. N. College. Illustrated. 8vo. . #1.50 

MAIN and BROWN.— The Marine Steam-Engine. 

By Thomas J. Main, F. R. Ass't S. Mathematical Professor at the 
Royal Naval College, Portsmouth, and Thomas Brown, Assoc. 
Inst. C. E., Chief Engineer R. N. Attached to the Royal NavaJ 
College. With numerous illustrations. 8vo. . . $5.00 

MAKINS.— A Manual of Metallurgy: 

By George Hogarth Makins. 100 engravings. Second edition 
rewritten and much enlarged. l2mo., 592 pages . . $3-oo 

MARTIN.— Screw-Cutting Tables, for the Use of Mechanical 

Engineers : 
Showing the Proper Arrangement of Wheels for Cutting the Threads 
of Screws of any Required Pitch ; with a Table for Making the Uni- 
versal Gas-Pipe Thread and Taps. By W. A. Martin, Engineer. 
8vo. 50 

MICHELL.— Mine Drainage: 

Being a Complete and Practical Treatise on Direct-Acting Under* 
ground Steam Pumping Machinery. With a Description of a large 
number of the best known Engines, their General Utility and the 
Special Sphere of their Action, the Mode of their Application, and 
their Merits compared with other Pumping Machinery. By Stephen 
MlCHELL. Illustrated by 137 engravings. 8vo., 277 pages . $6.00 

laOLESWORTH.— Pocket-Book of Useful FormuJae and 

Memoranda for Civil and Mechanical Engineers. 

By Guilford L. Moleswo'rth, Member of the Institution of Civi? 

Engineers, Chief Resident Engineer of the Ceylon Railway. Full. 

bound in Pocket-book form ...••• $I.Qfe 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & C0.15 CATALOGUE. 19 

MOORE.— The Universal Assistant and the Complete Me- 
chanic : 

Containing over one million Industrial Facts, Calculations, Receipt*, 
Processes, Trades Secrets, Rules, Business Forms, Legal Items, Etc., 
in every occupation, from the Household to the Manufactory. By 
R. Moore. Illustrated by 500 Engravings. i2mo. . $2.50 

MORRIS. — Easy Rules for the Measurement of Earthworks : 

v By means of the Prismoidal Formula. Illustrated with Numerous 
Wood-Cuts, Problems, and Examples, and concluded by an Exten- 
sive Table for finding the Solidity in cubic yards from Mean Areas. 
The whole being adapted for convenient use by Engineers, Surveyors, 
Contractors, and others needing Correct Measurements of Earthwork. 
By Elwood Morris, C. E. 8vo $1.50 

MORTON. — The System of Calculating Diameter, Circumfer- 
ence, Area, and Squaring the Circle : 
Together with Interest and Miscellaneous Tables, and other informa* 
tion. By James Morton. Second Edition, enlarged, with the 
Metric System. i2mo. ....... $1.00 

NAPIER.— Manual of Electro-Metallurgy: 

Including the Application of the Art to Manufacturing Processei. 
By James Napier. Fourth American, from the Fourth London 
edition, revised and enlarged. Illustrated by engravings. 8vo. 

NAPIER. — A System of Chemistry Applied to Dyeing. 

By James Napier, F. C. S. A New and Thoroughly Revised Edi- 
tion. Completely brought up to the present state of the Science, 
including the Chemistry of Coal Tar Colors, by A. A. Fesquet, 
Chemist and Engineer. With an Appendix on Dyeing and Calic« 
Printing, as shown at the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1867. Illus- 
trated. 8vo. 422 pages $3-S° 

NEVILLE.— Hydraulic Tables, Coefficients, and Formulae, for 
finding the Discharge of Water from Orifices, Notches, 
Weirs, Pipes, and Rivers : 
Third Edition, with Additions, consisting of New Formulae for the 
Discharge from Tidal and Flood Sluices and Siphons ; general infor- 
mation on Rainfall, Catchment-Basins, Drainage, Sewerage, Water 
Supply for Towns and Mill Power. By Iohn Neville, C. E. M. R. 
I. A. ; Fellow of the Royal Geological Society of Ireland. Thick 
l2mo #5.50 

HEWBERY.— Gleanings from Ornamental Art of every 
style : 
Drawn from Examples in the British, South Kensington, Indian, 
Crystal Palace, and other Museums, the Exhibitions of 1 85 1 and 
1862, and the best English and Foreign works. In a series of 100 
exquisitely drawn Plates, containing many hundred examples. By 
Robert Nevvbery. 4to. #12.50 

UICHOLLS. —The Theoretical and Practical Boiler-Maker and 
Engineer's Reference Book: 
Containing a variety of Useful Information for Employers of Labor* 
Foremen and Working Boiler-Makers, Iron, Copper, and Tinsmith* 



2K> HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 

Draughtsmen, Engineers, the General Steam-using Public, and for th« 
Use of Science Schools and Classes. By Samuel Nicholls. Illus. 
trated by sixteen plates, i2mo. ..... $2.50 

NICHOLSON.— A Manual of the Art of Bookbinding : 

Containing full instructions in the different Branches of Forwarding, 
Gilding, and Finishing. Also, the Art of Marbling Book-edges and 
Paper. By James B. Nicholson. Illustrated. i2mo., cloth $2.25 

NICOLLS.— The Railway Builder: 

A Hand-Book for Estimating the Probable Cost of American Rail* 
way Construction and Equipment. By WILLIAM J. NlCOLLS, Civil 
Engineer. Illustrated, full bound, pocket-book form . $2.00 

NORMANDY. — The Commercial Handbook of Chemical An- 
alysis : 
Or Practical Instructions for the Determination of the Intrinsic or 
Commercial Value of Substances used in Manufactures, in Trades, 
and in the Arts. By A. Normandy. New Edition, Enlarged, and 
to a great extent rewritten. By Henry M. Noad, Ph.D., F.R.S., 
thick i2mo. ......... $5.00 

MORRIS. — A Handbook fcr Locomotive Engineers and Ma- 
chinists : 
Comprising the Proportions and Calculations for Constructing Loco- 
motives; Manner of Setting Valves; Tables cf Squares, Cubes, Areas, 
etc., etc. By Septimus Norris, M. E. New edition. Illustrated, 
I2mo $1.50 

NYSTROM. — A New Treatise on Elements of Mechanics : 
Establishing Strict Precision in the Meaning of Dynamical Terms : 
accompanied with an Appendix on Duodenal Arithmetic and Me- 
trology. By John W. Nystrom, C. E. Illustrated. 8vo. #2.00 

NYSTROM. — On Technological Education and the Construc- 
tion of Ships and Screw Propellers : 
For Naval and Marine Engineers. By John W. Nystrom, lata 
Acting Chief Engineer, U. S. N. Second edition, revised, with addi- 
tional matter. Illustrated by seven engravings. i2mo. . $1.50 

O'NEILL. — A Dictionary of Dyeing and Calico Printing: 

Containing a brief account of ail the Substances and Processes in 
use in the Art of Dyeing and Printing Textile Fabrics ; with Practical 
Receipts and Scientific Information. By Charles O'Neill, Analy- 
tical Chemist. To which is added an Essay on Coal Tar Colors and 
their application to Dyeing and Calico Printing. By A. A. Fesquet, 
Chemist and Engineer. With an appendix on Dyeing and Calico 
Printing, as shown at the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1867. 8vo., 
491 pages $3.50 

ORTON. — Underground Treasures'. 

How and Where to Find Them. A Key for the Ready Determination 
of ail the Useful Minerals within the United States. By James 
ORTON, A.M., Late Professor of Natural History in Vassar College, 
N. Y.; Cor. Mem. of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, 
and of the Lyceum of Natural History, New York ; author of" the 
••Andes and the Amazon," etc. A New Edition, with Additions. 
Illustrated * #1.50 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



OSBORN. — The Metallurgy of Iron and Steel: 

Theoretical and Practical in all its Branches; with special reference 
to American Materials and Processes. By H. S. O^born, LL. D., 
Professor of Mining and Metallurgy in Lafayette College, Easton, 
Pennsylvania. Illustrated by numerous large folding plates and 
wood-engravings. 8vo. ...... $25.00 

OSBORN. — A Practical Manual of Minerals, Mines and Min- 

» ing: 

Comprising the Physical Properties, Geologic Positions, Local Occur- 
rence and Associations of the Useful Minerals ; their Methods of 
Chemical Analysis and Assay : together with Various Systems of 
Excavating and Timbering, Brick and Masonry Work, during Driv- 
ing, Lining, Bracing and other Operations, etc. By Prof. H. S. 
Osborn, LL. D., Author of the " Metallurgy of Iron and Steel." 
Illustrated by 1 71 engravings from original drawings. 8vo. $4$0 

OVERMAN.— The Manufacture of Steel : 

Containing the Practice and Principles of Working and Making Steel. 
A Handbook for Blacksmiths and Workers in Steel and Iron, Wagon 
Makers, Die Sinkers, Cutlers, and Manufacturers of Files and Hard- 
ware, of Steel and Iron, and for Men of Science and Art. By 
Frederick Overman, Mining Engineer, Author of the " Manu- 
facture of Iron," etc. A new, enlarged, and revised Edition. By 
A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and Engineer. i2mo. . . $1.50 

OVERMAN.— The Moulder's and Founder's Pocket Guide : 
A Treatise on Moulding and Founding in Green-sand, Dry-sand, Loam, 
and Cement; the Moulding of Machine Frames, Mill-gear, Hollow* 
ware, Ornaments, Trinkets, Bells, and Statues; Description of Moulds 
for Iron, Bronze, Brass, and other Metals; Plaster of Paris, Sulphur, 
Wax, etc. ; the Construction of Melting Furnaces, the Melting and 
Founding of Metals ; the Composition of Alloys and their Nature, 
etc., etc. By Frederick Overman, M. E. A new Edition, to 
which is added a Supplement on Statuary and Ornamental Moulding, 
Ordnance, Malleable Iron Castings, etc. By A. A. Fesquet, Chem- 
ist and Engineer. Illustrated by 44 engravings. I2mo. . $2.00 

PAINTER, GILDER, AND VARNISHER'S COMPANION; 

v Containing Rules and Regulations in everything relating to the ArlS 
of Painting, Gilding, Varnishing, Glass-Staining, Graining, Marbling, 
Sign- Writing, Gilding on Glass, and Coach Painting and Varnishing; 
Tests for the Detection of Adulterations in Oils, Colors, etc. ; and a 
Statement of the Diseases to which Painters are peculiarly liable, with 
the Simplest and Best Remedies. Sixteenth Edition. Revised, willi 
an Appendix. Containing Colors and Coloring — Theoretical and 
Practical. Comprising descriptions of a great variety of Additional 
Pigments, their Qualities and Uses, to which are added, Dryers, and 
Modes and Operations of Painting, etc. Together with Chevreul's 
Principles of Harmony and Contrast of Colors. i2mo. Cloth $1.50 

PALLETT.— The Miller's, Millwright's, and Engineer's Guide. 
By Henry Pallett. Illustrated. i2mo. . . • #2.00 



22 KENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



PERCY.— The Manufacture of Russian Sheet-Iron. 

By John Percy, M. D., F. R. S., Lecturer on Metallurgy at th« 
Royal School of Mines, and to The Advance Class of Artillery 
Officers at the Royal Artillery Institution, Woolwich ; Author of 
" Metallurgy." With Illustrations. 8vo., paper . . 50 cts. 

PERKINS.— Gas and Ventilation : 
Practical Treatise on Gas and Ventilation. With Special Relation 
to Illuminating, Heating, and Cooking by Gas. Including Scientific 
Helps to Engineer-students and others. With Illustrated Diagrams. 
By E. E. Perkins. i2mo., cloth $1.25 

PERKINS AND STOWE.-A New Guide to the Sheet-iron 
and Boiler Plate Roller : 
Containing a Series of Tables showing the Weight of Slabs and Piles 
to Produce Boiler Plates, and of the Weight of Piles and the Sizes of 
Bars to produce Sheet-iron ; the Thickness of the Bar Gaugft 
in decimals; the Weight per foot, and the Thickness on the Bar or 
Wire Gauge of the fractional parts of an inch; the Weight per 
sheet, and the Thickness on the Wire Gauge of Sheet-iron of various 
dimensions to weigh 1 12 lbs. per bundle; and the conversion of 
Short Weight into Long Weight, and Long Weight into Short. 
Estimated and collected by G. H. Perkins and J. G. Stowe. 12.5a 

POWELL— CHANCE— HARRIS.— The Principles of Glass 

Making. 

By Harry J. Powell, B. A. Together with Treatises on Crown and 

Sheet Glass; by Henry Chance, M. A. And Plate Glass, by H. 

G. Harris, Asso. M. Inst. C. E. Illustrated i8mo. . $i.$<* 

PROCTOR.— A Pocket-Book of Useful Tables and Formulae 
for Marine Engineers : 
By. Frank Proctor. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 
Full -bound pocket-book form #1.50 

REGNAULT.— Elements of Chemistry: 

By M. V. Regnault. Translated from the French by T. Forrest 
Betton, M. D., and edited, with Notes, by James C. Booth, Melter 
and Refiner U. S. Mint, and William L. Faher, Metallurgist and 
Mining Engineer. Illustrated by nearly 700 wood-engravings. Com- 
prising nearly 1,500 pages. In two volumes, 8vo., cloth . $7-S° 

RICHARDS.— Aluminium : 

Its History, Occurrence, Properties, Metallurgy and Applications, 
including its Alloys. By Joseph W. Richards, A. C, Chemist and 
Practical Metallurgist, Member of the Deutsche Chemische Gesell- 
schaft. Illustrated #5-00 

RIFFAULT, VERGNAUD, and TOUSSAINT.— A Practical 
Treatise on the Manufacture of Colors for Painting : 
Comprising the Origin, Definition, and Classification of Colors; the 
Treatment of the Raw Materials ; the best Formulae and the Newest 
Processes for the Preparation of every description of Pigment, and 
the Necessary Apparatus and Directions for its Use ; Dryers ; the 
Testing, Application, and Qualities of Paints, etc, etc. By MM. 
Rifpault, Vergnaud, and Toussaint. Revised and Edited by M. 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 23 

T. Malepeyhe. Translated from the French, by A. A. FesqURT;. 
Chemist and Engineer. Illustrated by Eighty engravings. In one 
vol., 8vo., 659 pages $7'$° 

ROPER. — A Catechism of High- Pressure, or Non-Condensing 
Steam-Engines : 
Including the Modelling, Constructing, and Management of Steam* 
Engines and Steam Boilers. With valuable illustrations. By Ste- 
phen Roper, Engineer. Sixteenth edition, revised and enlarged. 
i8mo., tucks, gilt edge #2.00 

ROPER.— Engineer's Handy-Book: 
Containing a full Explanation of the Steam-Engine Indicator, and its 
Use and Advantages to Engineers and Steam Users. "With Formulae 
for Estimating the Power of all Classes of Steam- Engines ; also. 
Facts, Figures, Questions, and Tables for Engineers who wish to 
qualify themselves for the United States Navy, the Revenue Service, 
the Mercantile Marine, or to take charge of the Better Class of Sta- 
tionary Steam-Engines. Sixth edition. i6mo.« 690 pages, tucks, 
gilt edge #3.50 

ROPER. — Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines : 

Including the Modelling, Construction, Running, and Management 
of Lane 5 and Marine Engines and Boilers. With illustrations. By 
Stephen Roper, Engineer. Sixth edition. i2mo.,tv , cks, gilt edge. 

#3-5<J 
ROPER.— Hand-Book of the Locomotive : 

Including the Construction of Engines and Boilers, and the Construc- 
tion, Management, and Running of Locomotives. By STEPHEN 
Roper. Eleventh edition. i8mo., tucks, gilt edge . $2. 59 

ROPER. — Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines. 

With illustrations. By Stephen Roper, Engineer. Fourth edition, 
i2mo., tucks, gilt edge $3-50 

ROPER. — Questions and Answers for Engineers. 

This little book contains all the Questions that Engineers will be 
asked when undergoing an Examination for the purpose of procuring 
Licenses, and they are so plain that any Engineer or Fireman of or- 
dinary intelligence may commit them to memory in a short time. By 
Stephen Roper, Engineer. Third edition . . . $3.00 

ROPER.— Use and Abuse of the Steam Boiler. 

By Stephen Roper, Engineer. Eighth edition, with illustrations. 
l8mo., tucks, gilt edge $2.00 

ROSE.— The Complete Practical Machinist : 

Embracing Lathe Work, Vise Work, Drills and Drilling, Taps and 
Dies, Hardening and Tempering, the Making and Use of Tools,' 
Tool Grinding, Marking out Work, etc. By Joshua Rose. Illus- 
trated by 356 engravings. Thirteenth edition, thoroughly revised 
and in great part rewritten. In one vol., i2mo., 439 pages $2.$a 

fcOSE. — Mechanical Drawing Self-Taught: 
Comprising Instructions in the Selection and Preparation of Drawing 
Instruments, Elementary Instruction in Practical Mechanical Draw- 



94 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 

ing, together with Examples in Simple Geometry and Elementary 
Mechanism, including Screw Threads, Gear Wheels, Mechanical 
Motions, Engines and Boilers. By Joshua Rose, M. E. Illustrated 
by 330 engravings. 8vo, 313 pages .... #4.00 

ROSE.— The Slide- Valve Practically Explained: 

Embracing simple and complete Practical Demonstrations of thv 
operation of each element in a Slide-valve Movement, and illustrat- 
ing the effects of Variations in their Proportions by examples care- 
fully selected from the most recent and successful practice. By 
Joshua Rose, M. E. Illustrated by 35 engravings . #1.00 

ROSS. — The Blowpipe in Chemistry, Mineralogy and Geology: 
Containing all Known Methods of Anhydrous Analysis, many Work- 
ing Examples, and Instructions for Making Apparatus. By Lieut. - 
Colonel W. A. Ross, R. A., F. G. S. With 120 Illustrations. 
i2mo #2.0© 

SHAW.— Civil Architecture : 

Being a Complete Theoretical and Practical System of Building, con- 
taining the Fundamental Principles of the Art. By Edward Shaw, 
Architect. To which is added a Treatise on Gothic Architecture, etc. 
By Thomas W. Silloway and George M. Harding, Architects. 
The whole illustrated by 102 quarto plates finely engraved on copper. 
Eleventh edition. 4to. ....... $10.00 

SHUNK. — A Practical Treatise on Railway Curves and Loca- 
tion, for Young Engineers. 
By W. F. Shunk, C. E. i2mo. Full bound pocket-book form $2.00 

SLATER.— The Manual of Colors and Dye Wares. 
By J. W. Slater. i2mo #3-75 

SLOAN. — American Houses: 

A variety of Original Designs for Rural Buildings. Illustrated by 
26 colored engravings, with descriptive references. By Samuel 
Sloan, Architect. 8vo. $1.50 

SLOAN. — Homestead Architecture : 

Containing Forty Designs for Villas, Cottages, and Farm-houses, with 
Essays on Style, Construction, Landscape Gardening, Furniture, etc., 
etc. Illustrated by upwards of 200 engravings. By Samuel Sloan, 

Architect. 8vo $3-S° 

SLOANE.— -Home Experiments in Science. 

By T. O'Conor Sloane, E. M., A. M., Ph. D. Illustrated by 91 
engravings. 121110. ....... #1.50 

SMEATON. — Builder's Pocket-Companion : 

Containing the Elements of Building, Surveying, and Architecture; 
with Practical Rules and Instructions connected with the subject. 
By A. C. Smeaton, Civil Engineer, etc. i2mo. . . #1.50 
SMITH.— A Manual of Political Economy. 

By E. Peshine Smith. A New Edition, to which is added a full 
Index. i2mo $1 25 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 25 

SMITH. — Parks and Pleasure-Grounds : 

Or Practical Notes on Country Residences, Villas, Public Parks, and 
Gardens. By Charles H. J. Smith, Landscape Gardener and 
Garden Architect, etc., etc. i2mo. .... #2.00 

SMITH.— The Dyer's Instructor: 

' Comprising Practical Instructions in the Art of Dyeing Silk, Cotton, 
Wool, and Worsted, and Woolen Goods ; containing nearly 800 
Receipts. To which is added a Treatise on the Art of Padding; and 
the Printing of Silk Warps, Skeins, and Handkerchiefs, and the 
various Mordants and Colors for the different styles of such work. 
By David Smith, Pattern Dyer. i2mo. . . . $2.00 

SMYTH. — A Rudimentary Treatise on Coal and Coal-Mining. 
By Warrington W. Smyth, M. A., F. R. G., President R. G. S, 
of Cornwall. Fifth edition, revised and corrected. With numer- 
ous illustrations. i2mo. ...... $i«75 

SNIVELY.— Tables for Systematic Qualitative Chemical Anak 
ysis. 
By John H. Snively, Phr. D. 8vo. . . . . $1.00 

SNIVELY.— The Elements of Systematic Qualitative Chemical 
Analysis : 
A Hand-book for Beginners. By John H. Snively, Phr. D. i6mo. 

#2.00 

STEWART.— The American System : 

Speeches on the Tariff Question, and on Internal Improvements, 
principally delivered in the House of Representatives of the United 
States. By Andrew Stewart, late M. C. from Pennsylvania. 
With a Portrait, and a Biographical Sketch. 8vo. . . $3.00 

STOKES.— The Cabinet Maker and Upholsterer's Companion: 
Comprising the Art of Drawing, as applicable to Cabinet Work; 
Veneering, Inlaying, and Buhl-Work; the Art of Dyeing and Stain- 
ing Wood, Ivory, Bone, Tortoise-Shell, etc. Directions for Lacker- 
ing, Japanning, and Varnishing; to make French Polish, Glues^ 
Cements, and Composia^ns; with numerous Receipts, useful to work 
men generally. Bv Stokes. Illustrated. A New Edition, with 
an Appendix upor /ench Polishing, Staining, Imitating, Varnishing^ 
etc., etc. i2mo ........ #1.25 

STRENGTH AND OTHER PROPERTIES OF METALS; 
Reports of Experiments on the Strength and other Properties of 
Metals for Cannon. With a Description of the Machines for Testing 
Metals, and of the Classification of Cannon in service. By Officers 
of the Ordnance Department, U. S. Army. By authority of the Secre- 
tary of War. Illustrated by 25 large steel plates. Quarto . $10.00 

SULLIVAN.— Protection to Native Industry. 

By Sir Edward Sullivan, Baronet, author of " Ten Chapters on 
Social Reforms." 8vo £1.59 

SULZ.— A Treatise on Beverages : 

Or the Complete Practical Bottler. Full instructions for Laboratory 
Work, with Original Practical Recipes for all kinds of Carbonated 
Drinks, Mineral Waters, Flavorings, Extracts, Syrups, etc. By 
Chas. Herman Sulz, Technical Chemist and Practical Bottler. 
Illustrated by 428 Engravings. 81S pp. 8vo. . $10.00 



) 

z6 HENRY CAREY BAIRU & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



SYME.— Outlines of an Industrial Science. 

By David Syme. i2mo. . ... #2.cxs 

TABLES SHOWING THE WEIGHT OF ROUND, 
SQUARE, AND FLAT BAR IRON, STEEL, ETC., 
By Measurement. Cloth ...... »3 

TAYLOR.— Statistics of Coal : 
Including Mineral Bituminous Substances employed in Arts and 
Manufactures; with their Geographical, Geological, and Commercial 
Distribution and Amount of Production and Consumption on the 
American Continent. With Incidental Statistics of the Iron Manu- 
facture. By R. C. Taylor. Second edition, revised by S. S. Halde- 
man. Illustrated by five Maps and many wood engravings. 8vo., 
cloth # IOO ° 

TEMPLETON — The Practical Examinator on Steam and the 

Steam -Engine: 

With Instructive References relative thereto, arranged for the Use of 

Engineers, Students, and others. By William Templeton, En- 

gineer. l2mo. ...••••• $ x - 2 5 

THAUSING.— The Theory and Practice of the Preparation of 
Malt and the Fabrication of Beer: 
With especial reference to the Vienna Process of Brewing. Elab- 
orated from personal experience by Julius E. Thausing, Professor 
at the School for Brewers, and at the Agricultural Institute, Modling, 
near Vienna. Translated from the German by William T. Brannt, 
Thoroughly and elaborately edited, with much American matter, and 
according to the latest and most Scientific Practice, by A. Schwarz 
and Dr. A. H. Bauer. Illustrated by 140 Engravings. 8vo., 815 
pages .......... $10.00 

THOMAS. — The Modern Practice of Photography: 

By R. W. Thomas, F. C. S. 8vo. .... 75 

THOMPSON.— Political Economy. With Especial Reference 
to the Industrial History of Nations : 
By Robert E. Thompson, M. A., Professor of Social Science in the 
University of Pennsylvania. i2mo. .... $1.50 

THOMSON.— Freight Charges Calculator: 

By Andrew Thomson, Freight Agent. 24j.mo. . . #1.25 
URNER'S (THE) COMPANION: 

Containing Instructions in Concentric, Elliptic, and Eccentric Turn- 
ing; also various Plates of Chucks, Tools, and Instruments; and 
Directions for using the Eccentric Cutter, Drill, Vertical Cutter, and 
Circular Rest; with Patterns and Instructions for working them, 
i2mo $1-2$ 

TURNING : Specimens of Fancy Turning Executed on the 

Hand or Foot-Lathe: 

With Geometric, Oval, and Eccentric Chucks, and Elliptical Cutting 

Frame. By an Amateur. Illustrated by 30 exquisite Photographs. 

4to. ... ... . $3.00 

ffRBIN— BRULL.— A Practical Guide for Puddling Iron an4 
Steel. 
By Ed. Ukbin, Engineer of Arts and Manufactures. A Prize Essay, 



HENRY CAREY BAIRB & CO'.'S CATALOGUE. 2? 

read before the Association of Engineers, Graduate of the School of 
Mines, of Liege, Belgium, at the Meeting of 1865-6. To which is 
added A Comparison of the Resisting Properties of Iron and 
Steel. By A. Brull. Translated from the French by A. A. Fes- 
QUET, Chemist and Engineer. 8vo. . . . . $1.00 

VAILE. — Galvanized-Iron Cornice-Worker's Manual: 

Containing Instructions in Laying out the Different Mitres, and 
Making Patterns for all kinds of Plain and Circular Work. Also, 
Tables of Weights, Areas and Circumferences of Circles, and other 
Matter calculated to Benefit the Trade. By Charles A. Vaile. 
Illustrated by twenty-one plates. 410 $5.00 

VILLE.— On Artificial Manures : 
•Their Chemical Selection and Scientific Application to Agriculture. 
A series of Lectures give'n at the Experimental Farm at Vincennes, 
during 1867 and 1874-75. By M. Georges Ville. Translated and 
Edited by William Crookes, F. R. S. Illustrated by thirty-one 
engravings. 8vo., 450 pages $6.00 

yiLLE.— The School of Chemical Manures : 
Or, Elementary Principles in the Use of Fertilizing Agents. From 
the French of M. Geo. Ville, by A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and En- 
gineer. With Illustrations. i2mo. .... #1.25 

VOGDES.— The Architect's and Builder's Pocket- Companion 
and Price-Book : 
Consisting of a Short but Comprehensive Epitome of Decimals, Duo- 
decimals, Geometry and Mensuration ; with Tables of United States 
Measures, Sizes, Weights, Strengths, etc., of Iron, Wood, Stone, 
Brick, Cement and Concretes, Quantities of Materials in given Sizes 
and Dimensions of Wood, Brick and Stone; and full and complete 
Bills of Prices for Carpenter's Work and Painting; also, Rules for 
Computing and Valuing Brick and Brick Work, Stone Work, Paint- 
ing, Plastering, with a Vocabulary of Technical Terms, etc. By 
Frank W. Vogdes, Architect, Indianapolis, Ind. Enlarged, revised, 
and corrected. In one volume, 368 pages, full-bound, pocket-book 

form, gilt edges I2.00 

Cloth . . 1.5a 

^AHL. — Galvanoplastic Manipulations : 
A Practical Guide for the Gold and Silver Electroplater and the Gal- 

' •vanoplastic Operator. Comprising the Electro-Deposition of all 
Metals by means of the Battery and the Dynamo-Electric Machine, 
as well as the most approved Processes of Deposition by Simple Im- 
mersion, with Descriptions of Apparatus, Chemical Products employed 
in the Art, etc. Based largely on the " Manipulations Hydroplas- 
tiques" of Alfred Roseleur. By William H. Wahl, Ph. D. 
( Heid), Secretary of the Franklin Institute. Illustrated by 189 en- 
gravings. 8vo., 656 pages j 

WALTON. — Coal-Mining Described and Illustrated: 
By Thomas H. Walton, Mining Engineer. Illustrated by 24 large 
and elaborate Plates, after Actual Workings and Apparatus. $5.00 



t8 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 

WARE.— The Sugar Beet. 

\ Including a History of the Beet Sugar Industry in Europe, Varieties 
of the Sugar Beet, Examination, Soils, Tillage, Seeds and Sowing, 
Yield and Cost of Cultivation, Harvesting, Transportation, Conserva- 
tion, Feeding Qualities of the Beet and of the Pulp, etc. By Lewij 
S. Ware, C. E., M. E. Illustrated by ninety engravings. 8vo. 

WARN.— The Sheet-Metal Worker's Instructor: 

For Zinc, Sheet-Iron, Copper, and Tin-Plate Workers, etc. Contain- 
ing a selection of Geometrical Problems ; also, Practical and Simple 
Rules for Describing the various Patterns required in the different 
branches of the above Trades. By Reuben H. Warn, Practical 
Tin-Plate Worker. To which is added an Appendix, .containing 
Instructions for Boiler-Making, Mensuration of Surfaces and Solids, 
Rules for Calculating the Weights of different Figures of Iron and 
Steel, Tables of the Weights of Iron, Steel, etc. Illustrated by thirty- 
two Plates and thirty-seven Wood Engravings. 8vo. . $3.00 

WARNER.— New Theorems, Tables, and Diagrams, for the 
Computation of Earth-work : 

Designed for the use of Engineers in Preliminary and Final Estimates, 
of Students in Engineering, and of Contractors and other non-profes. 
sional Computers. In two parts, with an Appendix. Part I. A Prac- 
tical Treatise; Part II. A Theoretical Treatise, and the Appendix. 
Containing Notes to the Rules and Examples of Part I.; Explana- 
tions of the Construction of Scales, Tables, and Diagrams, and a 
Treatise upon Equivalent Square Bases and Equivalent Level Heights. 
The whole illustrated by numerous original engravings, comprising 
explanatory cuts for Definitions and Problems, Stereometric Scales 
and Diagrams, and a series of Lithographic Drawings from Models 1 
Showing all the Combinations of Solid Forms which occur in Railroad 
Excavations and Embankments. By John Warner, A. M., Mining 
and Mechanical Engineer. Illustrated by 14 Plates. A new, revised 
and improved edition. 8vo. ...... $4.00: 

WATSON.— A Manual of the Hand-Lathe : 

Comprising Concise Directions for Working Metals of all kinds, 
Ivory, Bone and Precious Woods ; Dyeing, Coloring, and French 
Polishing; Inlaying by Veneers, and various methods practised to 
produce Elaborate work with Dispatch, and at Small Expense. By 
Egbert P. Watson, Author of " The Modern Practice of American 
Machinists and Engineers." Illustrated by 78 engravings. #1.50 

WATSON. — The Modern Practice of American Machinists and 
Engineers : 
Including the Construction, Application, and Use of Drills, Lathe 
Tools, Cutters for Boring Cylinders, and Hollow-work generally , with 
the most Economical Speed for the same ; the Results verified by 
Actual Practice at the Lathe, the Vise, and on the Floor. Together 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 29 

with Workshop Management, Economy of Manufacture, the Steam* 
Engine, Boilers, Gears, Belting, etc., etc. By Egbert P. Watson. 
Illustrated by eighty-six engravings. i2mo. . . . $2-$<l 

flTATSON.— The Theory and Practice of the Art of Weaving 
by Hand and Power : 
With Calculations and Tables for the Use of those connected with the 
Trade. By John Watson, Manufacturer and Practical Machine- 
Maker. Illustrated by large Drawings of the best Power Looms. 
8vo. ...• #7.50 

WATT.— The Art of Soap Making : 
A Practical Hand-book of the Manufacture of Hard and Soft Soaps, 
Toilet Soaps, etc., including many New Processes, and a Chapter on 
the Recovery of Glycerine from Waste Leys. By Alexander 
Watt. 111. i2mo. $3.00 

WEATHERLY.— Treatise on the Art of Boiling Sugar, Crys- 
tallizing, Lozenge-making, Comfits, Gum Goods, 
And other processes for Confectionery, etc., in which are explained, 
in an easy and familiar manner, the various Methods of Manufactur- 
ing every Description of Raw and Refined Sugar Goods, as sold by 
Confectioners and others. i2mo |l-5<> 

WIGHTWICK.— Hints to Young Architects: 

Comprising Advice to those who, while yet at school, are destined 
to the Profession; to such as, having passed their pupilage, are about 
to travel ; and to those who, having completed their education, are 
about to practise. Together with a Model Specification involvir.g a 
great variety of instructive and suggestive matter. By GeorgB 
Wightwick, Architect. A new edition, revised and considerably 
enlarged ; comprising Treatises on the Principles of Construction 
and Design. By G. Huskisson Guillaume, Architect. Numerous 
illustrations. One vol. i2mo #2.00 

WILL. — Tables of Qualitative Chemical Analysis. 
With an Introductory Chapter on the Course of Analysis. By Pro- 
fessor Heinrich Will, of Giessen, Germany. Third American, 
from the eleventh German edition. Edited by Charles F. HlMES, 
Ph. D., Professor of Natural Science, Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa. 
8vo. . #1-50 

WILLIAMS.— On Heat and Steam : 

Embracing New Views of Vaporization, Condensation, and Explo- 
sion. By Charles Wye Williams, A. I. C. E. Illustrated 8vo. 

#3 5° 
WILSON.— A Treatise on Steam Boilers : 

Their Strength, Construction, and Economical Working. By Robert 

Wilson. Illustrated i2mo $2.00 

A/ILSON.— First Principles of Political Economy : 
With Reference to Statesmanship and the Progress of Civilization. 
By Professor W. D. Wilson, of the Cornell University. A new and 
revised edition. i2mo $1.50 



jo HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 

WOHLER. — A Hand-Bookof Mineral Analysis: 

By F. Wohler, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Gottin- 
gen. Edited by Henry B. Nason, Professor of Chemistry in the 
Renssalaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York. Illustrated. 
i2mo I3.00 

WORSSAM.— On Mechanical Saws: 

From the Transactions of the Society of Engineers. 1869. By S. W. 
Worssam, Jr. Illustrated by eighteen large plates. 8vo. $2.50 



RECENT ADDITIONS. 

ANDERSON. — The Prospector's Hand-Book : 

A Guide for the Prospector and Traveler in Search of Metal Bearing 
or other Valuable Minerals. By J. W. Anderson. 52 Illustrations. 
i2mo $i-S° 

BEAUMONT.— Woollen and Worsted Cloth Manufacture: 

Being a Practical Treatise for the use of all persons employed in the 
manipulation of Textile Fabrics. By Robert Beaumont, M. S. A. 
With over 200 illustrations, including Sketches of Machinery, 
Designs, Cloths, etc. 391 pp. i2mo $2.50 

BRANNT.— The Metallic Alloys: 

A Practical Guide for the Manufacture of all kinds of Alloys, Amal- 
gams and Solders used by Metal Workers, especially by Bell Founders, 
Bronze Workers, Tinsmiths, Gold and Silver Workers, Dentists, etc., 
etc., as well as their Chemical and Physical Properties. Edited 
chiefly from the German of A. Krupp and Andreas Wildberger, with 
additions by Wm. T. Brannt. Illustrated. i2mo. $2.50 

BRANNT. — A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Vine- 
gar and Acetates, Cider, and Fruit- Wines : 
Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables by Canning and Evaporation; 
Preparation of Fruit-Butters, Jellies, Marmalades, Catchups, Pickles, 
Mustards, etc. Edited from various sources. By William T. 
Brannt. Illustrated by 79 Engravings. 479 pp. 8vo. $5.00 

BRANNT.— The Metal Worker's Handy-Book of Receipts 
and Processes : 

Being a Collection of Chemical Formulas and Practical Manipula- 
tions for the working of all Metals ; including the Decoration and 
Beautifying of Articles Manufactured therefrom, as well as their 
Preservation. Edited from various sources. By WILLIAM T. 
Brannt. Illustrated. i2mo. $2.50 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD £ CO.'S CATALOGUE. 3t 



DAVIS. A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Bricks, 

Tiles, Terra-Cotta, etc. : 

Including Hand-Made, Dry Clay, Tempered Clay, Soft-Mud, and 
Stiff-Clay Bricks, also Front, Hand-Pressed, Steam-Pressed, Re- 
pressed, Ornamentally Shaped and Enamelled Bricks, Drain Tiles, 
Straight and Curved Sewer and Water- Pipes, Fire-Clays, Fire-Bricks, 
Glass Pots, Terra-Cotta, Roofing Tiles, Flooring Tiles, Art Tiles, 
Mosaic Plates, and Imitation of Intarsia or Inlaid Surfaces, com- 
prising every Important Product of Clay Employed in Architecture, 
Engineering, the Blast Furnace, for Retorts, etc., with a History and 
the Actual Processes in Handling, Disintegrating, Tempering and 
Moulding the Clay into the Shape, Drying Naturally and Artificially, 
Setting, Burning with Coal, Natural Gas and Crude Oil Fuels, En- 
amelling in Polychromic Colors, Composition and Application of 
Glazes, etc., including Full Detailed Descriptions of the Most Mod- 
ern Machines, Tools, Kilns and Kiln Roofs used. By Charles 
Thomas Davis. Second Edition. Thoroughly Revised. Illus- 
trated by 217 Engravings. 501 pp. 8vo. . . . $5.00 

POSSELT.— Technology of Textile Design : 

Being a Practical Treatise on the Construction and Application of 
Weaves for all Textile Fabrics, with minute reference to the latest 
Inventions for Weaving. Containing also an Appendix, showing 
the Analysis and giving the Calculations necessary for the Manufac- 
ture of the various Textile Fabrics. By E. A. Posselt, Head 
Master Textile Department, Pennsylvania Museum and School of 
Industrial Art, Philadelphia, with over 1000 illustrations. 292 
pages. 4to $5-oo 

POSSELT.— The Jacquard Machine Analysed and Explained : 

With an Appendix on the Preparation of Jacquard Cards, and 
Practical Hints to Learners of Jacquard Designing. By E. A. 
Posselt. With 230 illustrations and numerous diagrams. 127 pp. 

4to #3.00 

RICH.— Artistic Horse- Shoeing: 

A Practical and Scientific Treatise, giving Improved Methods of 
Shoeing, with Special Directions for Shaping Shoes to Cure Different 
Diseases of the Foot, and for the Correction of Faulty Action in 
Trotters. By George E- Rich. 62 Illustrations. 153 pages. 
i2mo £1.00 

RICHARDSON.— Practical Blacksmithing : 

A Collection of Articles Contributed at Different Times by Skilled 
Workmen to the columns of " The Blacksmith and Wheelwright," 
and Covering nearly the Whole Range of Blacksmithing, from the 
Simplest Job of Work to some of the Most Complex Forgings. 
Compiled and Edited by M. T. Richardson. 

Vol.1. 210 Illustrations. 224 pp. i2mo. . . , $1.00 

Vol.11. 230 Illustrations. 262 pages. i2mo. . . $l.QO 



32 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



RICHARDSON.— The Practical Horseshoer: 

Being a Collection of Articles on Horseshoeing in all its Branches 
which have appeared from time to time in the columns of " The 
Blacksmith and Wheelwright," etc. Compiled and edited by M. T. 
Richardson. 174 illustrations #1.00 

ROPER. — Instructions and Suggestions for Engineers and 
Firemen : 
By Stephen Roper, Engineer. i8mo. Morocco . $2.00 

ROPER. — The Steam Boiler: Its Care and Management: 
By Stephen Roper, Engineer. i2mo., tuck, gilt edges. $2.00 

ROPER.— The Young Engineer's Own Book: 

Containing an Explanation of the Principle and Theories on which 
the Steam Engine as a Prime Mover is Based. By Stephen Roper, 
Engineer. 160 illustrations, 363 pages. i8mo., tuck . $3.00 

ROSE. — Modern Steam- Engines: 

An Elementary Treatise upon the Steam-Engine, written in Plain 
language ; for Use in the "Workshop as well as in the Drawing Office. 
Giving Full Explanations of the Construction of Modern Steam- 
Engines : Including Diagrams showing their Actual operation. To- 
gether with Complete but Simple Explanations of the operations of 
Various Kinds of Valves, Valve Motions, and Link Motions, etc., 
thereby Enabling the Ordinary Engineer to clearly Understand the 
Principles Involved in their Construction and Use, and to Plot out 
their Movements upon the Drawing Board. By Joshua Rose. M. E. 
Illustrated by 422 engravings. 4to., 320 pages . . $6.00 

ROSE.— Steam Boilers: 

A Practical Treatise on Boiler Construction and Examination, for the 
Use of Practical Boiler Makers, Boiler Users, and Inspectors; and 
embracing in plain figures all the calculations necessary in Designing 
or Classifying Steam Boilers. By Joshua Rose, M. E. Illustrated 
by 73 engravings. 250 pages. 8vo $2,150 

SCHRIBER. — The Complete Carriage and Wagon Painter: 
A Concise Compendium of the Art of Painting Carriages, Wagons, 
and Sleighs, embracing Full Directions in all the Various Branches, 
including Lettering, Scrolling, Ornamenting, Striping, Varnishing, 
and Coloring, with numerous Recipes for Mixing Colors. 73 Illus- 
trations. 177 pp. i2mo. ...... $1.00 

VAN CLEVE. — The English and American Mechanic : 

Comprising a Collection of Over Three Thousand Receipts, Rules, 
and Tables, designed for the Use of every Mechanic and Manufac- 
turer. By B. Frank Van Cleve. Illustrated. 500 pp. i2mo. #2.00 

WAHNSCHAFFE.— Guide for the Scientific Examination of 
the Soil : 
By Dr. Felix Wahnschaffe. Translated from the German by 
Willtam T. Brannt. Illustrated by numerous Engravings. 8vo. 
(In preparation.^ 







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